Circassian–Golden Horde War (1319–1327)

Prelude

Mongol Invasions and the North Caucasus

The Mongol invasions had a profound impact on the ethnic and political landscape of the North Caucasus. By the 10th century, the Alans dominated the region, conducting raids against the Circassians, as noted by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus and the Arab historian Al-Masudi. Their dominance was facilitated by the political fragmentation of the Circassians, who were divided into multiple tribes, while the Alans were united under a central ruler. However, Alanian unity gradually weakened, and by the 13th century, the region descended into feudal anarchy, as recorded by Hungarian Dominican missionaries.

The Mongol advance in the 13th century further fragmented the region. According to the Georgian Chronicles Hundred Years Chronicle and Eristavs’ Memorial, part of the Alan population fled to Georgia, settling in the province of Dvaleti. Another group was deported to China, where they formed the Alan Guard of the Yuan dynasty. A third group was resettled across the Golden Horde, from the Danube to the Volga. Those who remained in the Caucasus retreated into the mountains, where they intermingled with local highland populations, giving rise to the Ossetians.

Contemporary Chinese sources, such as the Menu’er Shiji, referred to the Circassians as "Tuerge". The Golden Horde waged prolonged campaigns against the Circassians, as described by the Mamluk chronicler Al-Umari. He noted that Circassians often raided Kipchak lands, capturing and selling their children to Muslim markets.

Following the decline of the Golden Horde in the late 14th and 15th centuries, caused by the Great Troubles and Timur's invasions, the Circassians expanded into the political vacuum, settling in areas previously under Mongol control.

In the early 14th century, the Golden Horde, having consolidated power in the north Caucasus, focused on expanding its influence southward, including into Circassia. However, the Circassians, known for their guerrilla tactics and mountainous terrain, provided a strong resistance to Mongol domination. By the time of Uzbek Khan’s reign, relations between the Horde and the Circassians had deteriorated, leading to a series of campaigns against them.