Dejima

Organization

On the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki. The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received an annual rent from the Dutch. Dejima was a small island, 120 meters (390 ft) by 75 m (246 ft), linked to the mainland by a small bridge, guarded on both sides, and with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials.

The Dutch were watched by several Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a supervisor (乙名, otona) with about fifty subordinates. Numerous merchants supplied goods and catering, and about 150 interpreters (通詞, tsūji) served. They all had to be paid by the VOC. As the city of Nagasaki, Dejima was under the direct supervision of Edo through a governor (Nagasaki bugyō).

Every ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected. Its sails were held by the Japanese until they released the ship to leave. They confiscated religious books and weapons. Christian churches were banned on the island and the Dutch were not allowed to hold any religious services.

Despite the financial burden of maintaining the isolated outpost on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the Dutch, initially yielding profits of 50% or more. Trade declined in the 18th century, as only two ships per year were allowed to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the East-India Company in 1795, the Dutch government took over the exchange with Japan. Times were especially hard when the Netherlands, then called the Batavian Republic, was under French Napoleonic rule. All ties with the homeland were severed at Dejima, and for a while, it was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag was flown.

The chief VOC trading post officer in Japan was called the Opperhoofd by the Dutch, or Kapitan (from Portuguese capitão) by the Japanese. This descriptive title did not change when the VOC went bankrupt and trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indies government at Batavia. According to the sakoku rules of the Tokugawa shogunate, the VOC had to transfer and replace the opperhoofd every year with a new one. And each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun.

Trade

Originally, the Dutch mainly traded in silk, cotton, and materia medica from China and India. Sugar became more important later. Deer pelts and shark skin were transported to Japan from Formosa, as well as books, scientific instruments and many other rarities from Europe. In return, the Dutch traders bought Japanese copper, silver, camphor, porcelain, lacquerware, and rice.

To this was added the personal trade of VOC employees on Dejima, which was an important source of income for them and their Japanese counterparts. They sold more than 10,000 foreign books on various scientific subjects to the Japanese from the end of the 18th to the early 19th century. These became the basis of knowledge and a factor in the Rangaku movement, or Dutch studies.

Ships

In all, 606 Dutch ships arrived at Dejima during its two centuries of settlement, from 1641 to 1847.

• The first period, from 1641 to 1671, was rather free and saw an average of seven Dutch ships every year (12 sank during this period).
• From 1671 to 1715, about five Dutch ships were allowed to visit Dejima every year.
• From 1715, only two ships were permitted every year, which was reduced to one ship in 1790, and again increased to two ships in 1799.
• During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), in which the Netherlands was occupied by (and a satellite of) France, Dutch ships abstained from sailing to Japan directly due to the possibility of being captured by Royal Navy ships. They relied on "neutral" American and Danish ships. The Netherlands was annexed by Napoleon Bonaparte (1810–1813), while Britain captured several Dutch colonial possessions and after the 1811 invasion of Java, Dejima was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag still flew, as ordered by commissioner Hendrik Doeff.
• In 1815 the Dutch East Indies was returned to the control of the Netherlands and regular Dutch trading traffic was reestablished.

Trade policy

For two hundred years, foreign merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Dejima to Nagasaki. Japanese civilians were likewise banned from entering Dejima, except interpreters, cooks, carpenters, clerks and yūjo ("women of pleasure") from the Maruyama teahouses. The yūjo were handpicked from 1642 by the Japanese, often against their will. From the 18th century, there were some exceptions to this rule, especially following Tokugawa Yoshimune's doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. A few Oranda-yuki ("those who stay with the Dutch") were allowed to stay for longer periods, but they had to report regularly to the Japanese guard post. Once a year the Europeans were allowed to attend the festivities at the Suwa-Shrine under escort. Sometimes physicians such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Philipp Franz von Siebold were called to high-ranking Japanese patients with the permission of the authorities.

The Opperhoofd was treated like the representative of a tributary state, which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the shōgun in Edo. The Dutch delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790, and once every four years thereafter. This prerogative was denied to the Chinese traders. The lengthy travel to the shogunal court broke the boredom of the Dutch stay, but it was a costly affair.

In return, the Dutch delegation received some gifts from the shōgun. On arrival in Edo, the Opperhoofd and his retinue, usually his scribe and the factory physician, had to wait in the Nagasakiya (長崎屋), their mandatory residence, until they were summoned at the court. During the reign of the somewhat eccentric shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, they were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs for the amusement of the shōgun after their official audience, according to Engelbert Kaempfer.

Allegations published in the late 17th and early 18th century that Dutch traders were required by the Shogunate to renounce their Christian faith and undergo the test of treading on a fumi-e, an image of Jesus or Mary, are thought by modern scholars to be propaganda arising from the Anglo-Dutch Wars.

New introductions to Japan

• Badminton, a sport originated in India, was introduced by the Dutch during the 18th century; it is mentioned in the Sayings of the Dutch.
• Billiards were introduced in Japan on Dejima in 1764; it is noted as "Ball striking table" (玉突の場) in the paintings of Kawahara Keiga (川原慶賀).
• Beer seems to have been introduced as imports during the period of isolation. The Dutch governor Hendrik Doeff made his own beer in Nagasaki, following the disruption of trade during the Napoleonic Wars. Local production of beer started in Japan in 1880.
• Cabbage was introduced in the 17th century by the Dutch.
• Chocolate was introduced between 1789 and 1801; it is mentioned as a drink in the pleasure houses of Maruyama.
• Clover was introduced in Japan by the Dutch as packing material for fragile cargo. The Japanese called it "white packing herb" (シロツメクサ), in reference to its white flowers.
• Coffee was introduced by the Dutch under the name moka and koffie. The latter name appears in 18th-century Japanese books. Siebold refers to Japanese coffee amateurs in Nagasaki around 1823.
• A diving bell with air supply by a pump was bought from Hugh Morton & Co. at Leith Docks near Edinburgh in 1834.
• Paint (tar), used for ships, was introduced by the Dutch. The original Dutch name (pek) was also adopted in Japanese, Penki (ペンキ).
• Photography, first lessons in photography given to Japanese in 1856 by the physician of the island, J. K. van den Broek.
• Japan's oldest piano was introduced by Siebold in 1823, and later given to a tradesperson in the name of Kumaya (熊谷). It is currently on display in the Kumaya Art Museum (熊谷美術館), Hagi City.

Nagasaki Naval Training Center

Following the forced opening of Japan by US Navy Commodore Perry in 1854, the Bakufu suddenly increased its interactions with Dejima in an effort to build up knowledge of Western shipping methods. The Nagasaki Naval Training Center (長崎海軍伝習所, Nagasaki Kaigun Denshūsho), a naval training institute, was established in 1855 by the government of the shōgun at the entrance of Dejima, to enable maximum interaction with Dutch naval know-how. The center was equipped with Japan's first steamship, the Kankō Maru, given by the government of the Netherlands the same year. The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center.

Reconstruction

The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Dejima was abolished when Japan concluded the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1858. This ended Dejima's role as Japan's only window on the Western world during the era of national isolation. Since then, the island was expanded by reclaimed land and merged into Nagasaki. Extensive redesigning of Nagasaki Harbor in 1904 obscured its original location. The original footprint of Dejima Island has been marked by rivets; but as restoration progresses, the ambit of the island will be easier to see at a glance.

Dejima today is a work in progress. The island was designated a national historic site in 1922, but further steps were slow to follow. Restoration work was started in 1953, but that project languished. In 1996, restoration of Dejima began with plans for reconstructing 25 buildings in their early 19th-century state. To better display Dejima's fan-shaped form, the project anticipated rebuilding only parts of the surrounding embankment wall that had once enclosed the island. Buildings that remained from the Meiji period were to be used.

In 2000, five buildings, including the Deputy Factor's Quarters, were completed and opened to the public. In the spring of 2006, the finishing touches were put on the Chief Factor's Residence, the Japanese Officials' Office, the Head Clerk's Quarters, the No. 3 Warehouse, and the Sea Gate. In total, some ten buildings throughout the area have been restored.

In 2017, six new buildings, as well as the Omotemon Bridge (the old bridge to the mainland), were restored. The bridge was officially opened in attendance of members of the Japanese and Dutch royal families.

Long-term planning intends that Dejima will again be surrounded by water on all four sides; its characteristic fan-shaped form and all of its embankment walls will be fully restored. This long-term plan will include large-scale urban redevelopment in the area. To make Dejima an island again will require rerouting the Nakashima River and moving a part of Route 499.

Chronology

• 1550: Portuguese ships visit Hirado.
• 1561: Following the murder of foreigners in the area of the Hirado clan, the Portuguese began to look for other ports to trade.
• 1570: Christian daimyō Ōmura Sumitada make a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, six town blocks are built.
• 1571: Nagasaki Harbor is opened for trade, the first Portuguese ships enter.
• 1580: Ōmura Sumitada cedes jurisdiction over Nagasaki and Mogi to the Jesuits.
• 1588: Toyotomi Hideyoshi exerts direct control over Nagasaki, Mogi, and Urakami from the Jesuits.
• 1609: The Dutch East India Company opens a factory in Hirado. It closes in 1641 when it is moved to Dejima.
• 1612: Japan's feudal government decrees that Christian proselytizing on Bakufu lands is forbidden.
• 1616: All trade with foreigners except that with China is confined to Hirado and Nagasaki.
• 1634: The construction of Dejima begins.
• 1636: Dejima is completed; the Portuguese are interned on Dejima (Fourth National Isolation Edict).
• 1638: Shimabara Rebellion of Christian peasants is repressed with Dutch support, Christianity in Japan is repressed.
• 1639: Portuguese ships are prohibited from entering Japan. Consequently, the Portuguese are banished from Dejima.
• 1641: The Dutch East India Company Trading Post in Hirado is moved to Nagasaki.
• 1649: German surgeon Caspar Schamberger comes to Japan. Beginning of a lasting interest in Western style medicine.
• 1662: A shop is opened on Dejima to sell Imari porcelain.
• 1673: The English ship Return enters Nagasaki, but the shogunate refuses its request for trade.
• 1678: A bridge connecting Dejima with the shore is replaced with a stone bridge.
• 1690: German physician Engelbert Kaempfer comes to Dejima.
• 1696: Warehouses for secondary cargo reach completion on Dejima.
• 1698: The Nagasaki Kaisho (trade association) is founded.
• 1699: The Sea Gate is built at Dejima.
• 1707: Water pipes are installed on Dejima.
• 1775: Carl Peter Thunberg starts his term as physician on Dejima.
• 1779: Surgeon Isaac Titsingh arrives for his first tour of duty as "Opperhoofd".
• 1798: Many buildings, including the Chief Factor's Residence, are destroyed by the Great Kansei Fire of Dejima.
• 1804: Russian Ambassador Nikolai Rezanov visits Nagasaki to request an exchange of trade between Japan and Imperial Russia.
• 1808: The Phaeton incident occurs.
• 1823: German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold posted to Dejima.

Trading post chiefs (opperhoofden)

Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head'. The Japanese used to call the trading post chiefs kapitan which is derived from Portuguese capitão (cf. Latin caput, head). In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a Factor, i.e. agent.

Notable opperhoofden at Hirado

• François Caron: February 1639 – February 1641 (Caron was last opperhoofd at Hirado.)

Notable opperhoofden at Dejima

• François Caron: February 1639 – February 1641 (Caron was the first opperhoofd in Dejima following the forced move from Hirado.)
• Zacharias Wagenaer: November 1656 – October 1657
• Zacharias Wagenaer: October 1658 – November 1659
• Andreas Cleyer: October 1682 – November 1683
• Andreas Cleyer: October 1685 – November 1686
• Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: November 1776 – November 1777
• Isaac Titsingh: November 1779 – November 1780
• Isaac Titsingh: November 1781 – October 1783
• Isaac Titsingh: August 1784 – November 1784
• Hendrik Doeff: November 1803 – December 1817
• Jan Cock Blomhoff: December 1817 – November 1823
• Johan Willem de Stürler November 1823 – August 1826
• Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: November 1852 – February 1860