Horner's syndrome

Causes

Horner's syndrome is usually acquired as a result of disease, but may also be congenital (inborn, associated with heterochromatic iris) or iatrogenic (caused by medical treatment). In rare cases, Horner's syndrome may be the result of repeated, minor head trauma, such as being hit with a soccer ball. Although most causes are relatively benign, Horner's syndrome may reflect serious disease in the neck or chest (such as a Pancoast tumor (tumor in the apex of the lung) or thyrocervical venous dilatation).

Causes can be divided according to the presence and location of anhidrosis:

• Central (anhidrosis of face, arm and trunk)
  • Syringomyelia
  • Multiple sclerosis
  • Encephalitis
  • Brain tumors
  • Lateral medullary syndrome
• Preganglionic (anhidrosis of face)
  • Cervical rib traction on stellate ganglion
  • Thyroid carcinoma
  • Thyroidectomy
  • Goiter
  • Bronchogenic carcinoma of the superior fissure (Pancoast tumor) on apex of lung
  • Klumpke paralysis
  • Trauma - base of neck, usually blunt trauma, sometimes surgery.
  • As a complication of tube thoracostomy
  • Thoracic aortic aneurysm
• Postganglionic (no anhidrosis)
  • Cluster headache - combination termed Horton's headache
  • An episode of Horner's syndrome may occur during a migraine attack and be relieved afterwards
  • Cavernous sinus thrombosis
  • Middle ear infection
• Sympathectomy
• Nerve blocks, such as cervical plexus block, stellate ganglion or interscalene block

Pathophysiology

Horner syndrome is due to a deficiency of sympathetic activity. The site of lesion to the sympathetic outflow is on the ipsilateral side of the symptoms. The following are examples of conditions that cause the clinical appearance of Horner's syndrome:

• First-order neuron disorder: Central lesions that involve the hypothalamospinal tract (e.g. transection of the cervical spinal cord).
• Second-order neuron disorder: Preganglionic lesions (e.g. compression of the sympathetic chain by a lung tumor) that releases acetylcholine.
• Third-order neuron disorder: Postganglionic lesions at the level of the internal carotid artery (e.g. a tumor in the cavernous sinus or a carotid artery dissection) that releases norepinephrine.
• Partial Horner's syndrome: In case of a third-neuron disorder, anhidrosis is limited to the middle part of the forehead or can be absent, resulting in a partial Horner's syndrome.

If patients have impaired sweating above the waist affecting only one side of the body, and they do not have clinically apparent Horner's syndrome, then their lesions are just below the stellate ganglion in the sympathetic chain.

Diagnosis

Three tests are useful in confirming the presence and severity of Horner syndrome:

• Cocaine drop test: Cocaine eyedrops block the reuptake of post-ganglionic norepinephrine resulting in the dilation of a normal pupil from retention of norepinephrine in the synapse. However, in Horner's syndrome the lack of norepinephrine in the synaptic cleft causes mydriatic failure. A more recently introduced approach that is more dependable and obviates the difficulties in obtaining cocaine is to apply the alpha-agonist apraclonidine to both eyes and observe the increased mydriatic effect (due to hypersensitivity) on the affected side of Horner syndrome (the opposite effect to what the cocaine test would produce in the presence of Horner's).
• Paredrine test: This test helps to localize the cause of the miosis. If the third order neuron (the last of three neurons in the pathway which ultimately discharges norepinephrine into the synaptic cleft) is intact, then the amphetamine causes neurotransmitter vesicle release, thus releasing norepinephrine into the synaptic cleft and resulting in robust mydriasis of the affected pupil. If the lesion itself is of the third order neuron, then the amphetamine will have no effect and the pupil remains constricted. There is no pharmacological test to differentiate between a first and second order neuron lesion.
• Dilation lag test

It is important to distinguish the ptosis caused by Horner's syndrome from the ptosis caused by a lesion to the oculomotor nerve. In the former, the ptosis occurs with a constricted pupil (due to a loss of sympathetics to the eye), whereas in the latter, the ptosis occurs with a dilated pupil (due to a loss of innervation to the sphincter pupillae). In a clinical setting, these two ptoses are fairly easy to distinguish. In addition to the blown pupil in a CNIII (oculomotor nerve) lesion, this ptosis is much more severe, occasionally occluding the whole eye. The ptosis of Horner syndrome can be quite mild or barely noticeable (partial ptosis).

When anisocoria occurs and the examiner is unsure whether the abnormal pupil is the constricted or dilated one, if a one-sided ptosis is present then the abnormally sized pupil can be presumed to be on the side of the ptosis.

History

The syndrome is named after Johann Friedrich Horner, the Swiss ophthalmologist who first described the syndrome in 1869. Several others had previously described cases, but "Horner's syndrome" is most prevalent. In France and Italy, Claude Bernard is also eponymized with the condition (Claude Bernard–Horner syndrome, abbreviated CBH). In France, Francois Pourfour du Petit is also credited with describing this syndrome.

Children

The most common causes in young children are birth trauma and a type of cancer called neuroblastoma. The cause of about a third of cases in children is unknown.