Indexed grammar

Examples

In practice, stacks of indices can count and remember what rules were applied and in which order. For example, indexed grammars can describe the context-sensitive language of word triples { www : w ∈ {a,b}^* }:

A derivation of abbabbabb is then

S[] ⇒ S[g] ⇒ S[gg] ⇒ S[fgg] ⇒ T[fgg] T[fgg] T[fgg] ⇒ a T[gg] T[fgg] T[fgg] ⇒ ab T[g] T[fgg] T[fgg] ⇒ abb T[] T[fgg] T[fgg] ⇒ abb T[fgg] T[fgg] ⇒ ... ⇒ abb abb T[fgg] ⇒ ... ⇒ abb abb abb.

As another example, the grammar G = ⟨ {S,T,A,B,C}, {a,b,c}, {f,g}, P, S ⟩ produces the language { aⁿbⁿcⁿ: n ≥ 1 }, where the production set P consists of

An example derivation is

S[] ⇒ T[g] ⇒ T[fg] ⇒ A[fg] B[fg] C[fg] ⇒ aA[g] B[fg] C[fg] ⇒ aA[g] bB[g] C[fg] ⇒ aA[g] bB[g] cC[g] ⇒ aa bB[g] cC[g] ⇒ aa bb cC[g] ⇒ aa bb cc.

Both example languages are not context-free by the pumping lemma.

Properties

Hopcroft and Ullman tend to consider indexed languages as a "natural" class, since they are generated by several formalisms other than indexed grammars, viz.

• Aho's one-way nested stack automata
• Fischer's macro grammars
• Greibach's automata with stacks of stacks
• Maibaum's algebraic characterization

Hayashi generalized the pumping lemma to indexed grammars. Conversely, Gilman gives a "shrinking lemma" for indexed languages.

Linear indexed grammars

Gerald Gazdar has defined a second class, the linear indexed grammars (LIG), by requiring that at most one nonterminal in each production be specified as receiving the stack, whereas in an ordinary indexed grammar, all nonterminals receive copies of the stack. Formally, a linear indexed grammar is defined similar to an ordinary indexed grammar, but the production's form requirements are modified to:

1. A[σ] → α[] B[σ] β[],
2. A[σ] → α[] B[fσ] β[],
3. A[fσ] → α[] B[σ] β[],

where A, B, f, σ, α are used as above, and β ∈ (N ∪ T)^* is a string of nonterminal and terminal symbols like α. Also, the direct derivation relation ⇒ is defined similar to above. This new class of grammars defines a strictly smaller class of languages, which belongs to the mildly context-sensitive classes.

The language { www : w ∈ {a,b}^* } is generable by an indexed grammar, but not by a linear indexed grammar, while both { ww : w ∈ {a,b}^* } and { aⁿ bⁿ cⁿ : n ≥ 1 } are generable by a linear indexed grammar.

If both the original and the modified production rules are admitted, the language class remains the indexed languages.

Example

Letting σ denote an arbitrary sequence of stack symbols, we can define a grammar for the language L = {aⁿ bⁿ cⁿ | n ≥ 1 } as

To derive the string abc we have the steps:

S[] ⇒ aS[f]c ⇒ aT[f]c ⇒ aT[]bc ⇒ abc

Similarly:

S[] ⇒ aS[f]c ⇒ aaS[ff]cc ⇒ aaT[ff]cc ⇒ aaT[f]bcc ⇒ aaT[]bbcc ⇒ aabbcc

Computational power

The linearly indexed languages are a subset of the indexed languages, and thus all LIGs can be recoded as IGs, making the LIGs strictly less powerful than the IGs. A conversion from a LIG to an IG is relatively simple. LIG rules in general look approximately like ${\displaystyle X[\sigma ]\to \alpha Y[\sigma ]\beta }$, modulo the push/pop part of a rewrite rule. The symbols ${\displaystyle \alpha }$ and ${\displaystyle \beta }$ represent strings of terminal and/or non-terminal symbols, and any non-terminal symbol in either must have an empty stack, by the definition of a LIG. This is, of course, counter to how IGs are defined: in an IG, the non-terminals whose stacks are not being pushed to or popped from must have exactly the same stack as the rewritten non-terminal. Thus, somehow, we need to have non-terminals in ${\displaystyle \alpha }$ and ${\displaystyle \beta }$ which, despite having non-empty stacks, behave as if they had empty stacks.

Consider the rule ${\displaystyle X[\sigma ]\to Y[]Z[\sigma f]}$ as an example case. In converting this to an IG, the replacement for ${\displaystyle Y[]}$ must be some ${\displaystyle Y^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma ]}$ that behaves exactly like ${\displaystyle Y[]}$ regardless of what ${\displaystyle \sigma }$ is. To achieve this, we can simply have a pair of rules that takes any ${\displaystyle Y^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma ]}$ where ${\displaystyle \sigma }$ is not empty, and pops symbols from the stack. Then, when the stack is empty, it can be rewritten as ${\displaystyle Y[]}$.

${\displaystyle Y^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma f]\to Y^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle Y^{\mathrm{\prime }}[]\to Y[]}$

We can apply this in general to derive an IG from an LIG. So for example if the LIG for the language ${\displaystyle \{a^n{b}^n{c}^n{d}^m|n\ge 1,m\ge 1\}}$ is as follows:

${\displaystyle S[\sigma ]\to T[\sigma ]V[]}$

${\displaystyle V[]\to d|dV[]}$

${\displaystyle T[\sigma ]\to aT[\sigma f]c|U[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle U[\sigma f]\to bU[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle U[]\to ϵ}$

The sentential rule here is not an IG rule, but using the above conversion algorithm, we can define new rules for ${\displaystyle V^{\mathrm{\prime }}}$, changing the grammar to:

${\displaystyle S[\sigma ]\to T[\sigma ]V^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle V^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma f]\to V^{\mathrm{\prime }}[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle V^{\mathrm{\prime }}[]\to V[]}$

${\displaystyle V[]\to d|dV[]}$

${\displaystyle T[\sigma ]\to aT[\sigma f]c|U[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle U[\sigma f]\to bU[\sigma ]}$

${\displaystyle U[]\to ϵ}$

Each rule now fits the definition of an IG, in which all the non-terminals in the right hand side of a rewrite rule receive a copy of the rewritten symbol's stack. The indexed grammars are therefore able to describe all the languages that linearly indexed grammars can describe.

Relation to other formalisms

Vijay-Shanker and Weir (1994) demonstrates that Linear Indexed Grammars, Combinatory Categorial Grammars, Tree-adjoining Grammars, and Head Grammars all define the same class of string languages. Their formal definition of linear indexed grammars differs from the above.

LIGs (and their weakly equivalents) are strictly less expressive (meaning they generate a proper subset) than the languages generated by another family of weakly equivalent formalism, which include: LCFRS, MCTAG, MCFG and minimalist grammars (MGs). The latter family can (also) be parsed in polynomial time.

Distributed index grammars

Another form of indexed grammars, introduced by Staudacher (1993), is the class of Distributed Index grammars (DIGs). What distinguishes DIGs from Aho's Indexed Grammars is the propagation of indexes. Unlike Aho's IGs, which distribute the whole symbol stack to all non-terminals during a rewrite operation, DIGs divide the stack into substacks and distributes the substacks to selected non-terminals.

The general rule schema for a binarily distributing rule of DIG is the form

X[f₁...f_if_i+1...f_n] → α Y[f₁...f_i] β Z[f_i+1...f_n] γ

Where α, β, and γ are arbitrary terminal strings. For a ternarily distributing string:

X[f₁...f_if_i+1...f_jf_j+1...f_n] → α Y[f₁...f_i] β Z[f_i+1...f_j] γ W[f_j+1...f_n] η

And so forth for higher numbers of non-terminals in the right hand side of the rewrite rule. In general, if there are m non-terminals in the right hand side of a rewrite rule, the stack is partitioned m ways and distributed amongst the new non-terminals. Notice that there is a special case where a partition is empty, which effectively makes the rule a LIG rule. The Distributed Index languages are therefore a superset of the Linearly Indexed languages.