Kievan succession crisis of 1015–1019

The events of the dynastic crisis are reflected in Rus' sources (chronicles and works of the Boris and Gleb cycle; see The Tale of Boris and Gleb in the Primary Chronicle), and in the chronicles of the Polish Gallus Anonymus and German Thietmar of Merseburg. The later Old Norse saga of Eymundar þáttr hrings also retains echoes of these events. An analysis of all available sources shows a rather contradictory picture, and there is no consensus among researchers on the course of the events of the war.

Background

The conflict was rooted in the fact that prince Volodimer I had many sons who could claim Kiev after their father's death. There are mentions that Volodimer singled out Boris (Borys) among his sons, but there are no direct indications that Boris was to become the main heir. The Prince of Turov, Sviatopolk, was the eldest son of Volodimer; although according to other sources, Sviatopolk was Volodimer's nephew, the son of his elder brother of Yaropolk I of Kiev. In 1013, Sviatopolk was imprisoned by Volodimer on suspicion of attempting to seize the Kievan throne with the help of Polish duke Bolesław I the Brave, whose daughter (her name has not been preserved) Sviatopolk married in 1009. According to Thietmar of Merseburg, Sviatopolk's wife, son and Reinbern (former bishop of Kolberg, modern Kołobrzeg) were also imprisoned; the latter reportedly died in captivity. In response to Sviatopolk's arrest, Bolesław I set out on a campaign against Rus', enlisting the support of the Pechenegs. Volodimer was forced to release Sviatopolk together with the daughter of Bolesław I.

In 1014, another son of Volodimer I, Yaroslav (since the 19th century dubbed Yaroslav "the Wise"), who reigned in Veliky Novgorod, refused to send tribute to Kiev; thus, a war was brewing between Kiev and Novgorod. To campaign against Kiev, Yaroslav hired some Varangians, whose behaviour caused an uprising of the people of Novgorod, which Yaroslav brutally suppressed. Meanwhile, in Kiev, while preparing for a campaign against his rebellious son, prince Volodimer I fell ill and died on 15 July 1015. According to the Primary Chronicle, which contains a hagiographic account favouring Boris and Gleb, Volodimer's favourite son at the time was Boris, who was with the army in a campaign against the Pechenegs.

6 more chapters are free with a Lably account.

1015: opening moves

Boris and Gleb in the Primary Chronicle

The Primary Chronicle (PVL), the most frequently cited, but not the most reliable source about the conflict, was written about 100 years later in the 1110s, possibly commissioned by Yaroslav's descendants. It favours Yaroslav's side, and nicknamed Sviatopolk as "the Accursed", thereby indicating a clear bias. The PVL reports that Sviatopolk seized the throne, taking advantage of the absence of other brothers in Kiev. It also attributes to him the intention to destroy his competing relatives, ordering his soldiers to kill other sons of Volodimer'.

Upon his father's death, Svyatopolk settled in Kiev, and after calling together all the inhabitants of Kiev, he began to distribute largess among them. They accepted it, but their hearts were not with him, because their brethren were with Boris. (...) But Svyatopolk was filled with lawlessness. Adopting the device of Cain he sent messages to Boris that he desired to live at peace with him (...). But he plotted against him now how he might kill him.

— Primary Chronicle, column 132.

Sviatopolk had reason to worry: the Kievan druzhina, who had returned from Boris's unsuccessful campaign against the Pechenegs, was urging Boris to seize Kiev by force. Boris allegedly refused: "Be it not for me to raise my hand against my elder brother. Now that my father has passed away, let him take the place of my father in my heart." Soon, Boris was killed at the hands of assassins sent by Sviatopolk. The latter then sent messages to his other brother Gleb (Hlib) to come to Kiev to see his ill father. Shortly thereafter, Prince Gleb Volodimerovich of Murom was killed by Sviatopolk's men. Curiously, neither Boris nor Gleb resisted their fate, but accepted their death as an imitation of the Arrest of Jesus at Gethsemane. This narrative later became the basis of the cult of the princely saints Boris and Gleb, which Yaroslav evidently helped to create and spread in order to enhance the reigning clan's legitimacy. Prince Sviatoslav Volodimerovich the Derevlian tried to escape to Hungary, but was also killed by Sviatoslav's men.

Now the impious and evil Svyatopolk killed Svyatoslav in the Hungarian mountains, after causing him to be pursued as he fled into Hungary. Then he began to reflect how he would kill all his brethren, and rule alone in Rus'.

— Primary Chronicle, column 139.

According to the Primary Chronicle (PVL), Yaroslav was informed about the events in Kiev by his sister Predslava Volodimerovna. In the PVL in columns 135.27–136.1 (version A) and 140.25–141.1 (version B), Predslava informs her brother Yaroslav of their father Volodimer's death. The two passages represent two differing versions of events. In version A, Yaroslav warns Gleb; in version B, Predslava warns Yaroslav. There are also textual variations between the Laurentian (Lav) and Academic (Aka) manuscripts of version B, which say that Sviatopolk's men were on their way to kill Boris and Gleb, and the Hypatian (Ipa), Khlebnikov (Xle) and Radziwiłł (Rad) manuscripts, which state that Boris had already been killed, and Sviatopolk's men were now on their way to Gleb.

Origins in the Chronicon Thietmari and the Eymund Saga

Rus' sources report that Sviatopolk ordered his brothers to be killed. Some historians believe that they were drawn up under the control of Yaroslav the Wise or his descendants and do not reflect the true facts. The Chronicon Thietmari of contemporary German chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg (died 1 December 1018) does not mention the murders at all. Moreover, he claims that Sviatopolk (Sventipulk) fled to his father-in-law Bolesław (Boleslav) in Poland immediately after the death of Volodimer (Vladimir), while the realm was divided between "his (two) other sons".

King Vladimir died, in the fullness of his days, and left his entire inheritance to his two sons. The third son [Sventipulk] remained in prison, but later escaped and fled to his father-in-law [Boleslav], leaving his wife behind. (...) The king's power was divided among his sons, thereby completely affirming the words of Christ (...): 'Every kingdom divided within itself will be wasted.' [Luke 11:17].

— Chronicon Thietmari, Book 7, chapters 73–74.

The Eymundar þáttr hrings ("Eymund Saga", dated 13th century) claims that Jarizleifr ("Yaroslav") sent his Varangians to capture and blind his brother Burizleifr (possibly meaning "Boris") after Burizleifr had invaded Jarizleifr's kingdom.

...því at þá var ófriðr mikill í Garðaríki, því at Burizleifr, bróðir Jarizleifs konungs, gekk á ríkit. Við hann átti Eymundr fimm bardaga, en í inum síðasta var Burizleifr handtekinn ok blindaðr ok færðr konungi.
"...for there was at this time great discord in Garðaríki, because Burizleif, the brother of King Jarizleif, was making inroads on the kingdom. Against him Eymund fought five battles, and in the last Burizleif was taken captive and blinded and brought to the king."

— Eymundar þáttr hrings. 3. Sætt konunga (3. Truce of Kings).

Sometimes this statement is used to conclude that during the strife Boris supported Sviatopolk, perhaps even bringing the Pechenegs to his aid. On the other hand, other scholars claim that Burizleifr may have been based on duke Bolesław I of Poland instead, and that the Eymund Saga should be considered largely or entirely fictional. It is now impossible to say with complete certainty what really happened, but the evidence of a late and obscure foreign source still hardly outweighs the established version of Rus' chronicles.

1016: Battle of Liubech

The news of Sviatopolk's accession allegedly came immediately after Yaroslav's suppression of the anti-Varangian revolt of Novgorodians, so the prince was forced to quickly seek peace with Novgorod, whose support he needed in the war with Sviatopolk. The Novgorodians decided to support Yaroslav. The battle between Yaroslav's Varangian–Novgorodian army and the Kievan army took place in autumn 1015 or spring 1016 near the town of Liubech on the river Dnieper. The main textual witnesses of the Primary Chronicle provide conflicting accounts on details (in lines 141.17–142.22) of the Battle of Liubech. The Kievans were defeated and Yaroslav's army of Varangians took over the capital, while Sviatopolk fled to his father-in-law Bolesław I in Poland.

Researchers, based on the reports of Thietmar of Merseburg about Sviatopolk's stay in Poland since Volodimer's death, suggest that one of the other sons of Volodimer' first established himself on the Kievan throne: either Mstislav of Chernigov or Sviatoslav the Derevlian. And it was his army that was defeated at Lyubech. If it was Sviatoslav, then the story of his escape to the West took place after Liubech and his pursuer was not Sviatopolk, but Yaroslav.

1017: interlude

The PVL is nearly silent about the year 1017 (6525); it only says that "Yaroslav went [to Kiev], and [the] churches burnt down". It's unclear whether the Chronicle Yaroslav's arrival was causally linked to the churches burning or not, but Thietmar reported that only Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv had suffered severe damage from an accidental fire in 1017. Separately, he asserted that Kiev had "more than four hundred churches" at the time.

Sviatopolk did not give up his claim to the throne. His ally in the struggle against Yaroslav was his father-in-law, Boleslav I the Brave. Realising that it was only a matter of time before Bolesław I would use force to support his son-in-law, Yaroslav concluded an agreement against Bolesław I with Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, who had been at war with Poland since July 1015, and he himself moved with his army to Berestia in 1017, simultaneously with Henry II's invasion of Poland. Seeking a way out of the difficult situation, Bolesław I offered Yaroslav peace, which was to be supported by Bolesław I's marriage to Yaroslav's sister Predslava.

1018: Bolesław I's intervention

Probably, the conditions for peace were the release of Bolesław I's daughter and Sviatopolk's return to the Principality of Turov. Yaroslav rejected this offer. In early 1018, Bolesław I concluded peace with Emperor Henry II on the status quo ante and turned his attention to the east.

In summer 1018, Bolesław I intervened on behalf of his son-in-law Sviatopolk, and their combined troops and the opposing forces of Yaroslav encamped on both sides of the Western Bug (a tributary to the Vistula) near the town of Volyn. The allies managed to defeat Yaroslav, who fled to Novgorod. The combined forces of Bolesław and Sviatopolk then entered Kiev. According to Thietmar of Merzeburg, on 14 August 1018, Polish Prince Bolesław I triumphantly entered the city.

Bolesław and Sviatopolk in Kiev

Upon entering Kiev, Bolesław ordered his troops to spread across the Rus' cities in order to gather food for themselves. Sources differ on what happened next; it seems that Bolesław intended to settle down as the new prince of Kiev, rather than to restore Sviatopolk to the throne. According to Thietmar, Bolesław sent envoys from Kiev to German emperor Henry II, thanking him for support during the war, as well as to the Byzantine emperor, notifying him that that he had claimed power in Rus'.

But for reasons that are unclear, Bolesław I soon returned from Kiev to Poland, possibly as early as September 1018, as Thietmar of Merseburg (who died on 1 December 1018) reported Bolesław's return. The Primary Chronicle claims that Sviatopolk ordered the secret killing of the Lyakh (Polish) garrison, causing Bolesław I to evacuate from Kiev in a hurry, taking the property and boyars of Yaroslav and his sisters as hostages with him. Allegedly, Bolesław also took control of the Cherven Cities on his way back to Poland. Thietmar, on the other hand, reports that Bolesław "enthroned his son-in-law" and "returned joyfully" (Latin: hilaris rediit) to Poland. Thietmar's Chronicon contains no reports of Polish troops garrisoning Kiev or other cities that were massacred, nor that Bolesław fled with lots of booty and hostages. According to Ludolf Müller (2005), this should be considered a later literary invention to mirror the events of 1069, about which the Primary Chronicle describes how Bolesław II the Bold took over Kiev after the 1068 popular uprising and was driven out of it again, using a very similar sequence of events and very similar language to the events of 1018.

1019: Battle of the Alta River

Meanwhile, Yaroslav gathered a new army in Novgorod and fought against Sviatopolk for the second time. Left without Polish support, Sviatopolk fled from Kiev to the Pechenegs. In 1019 Sviatopolk came with a large army of Pechenegs to regain the Kievan throne. In the Battle of the Alta River (1019), that took place at the supposed site where Boris was killed, Yaroslav defeated Sviatopolk and secured the Kievan throne.

Aftermath

Bolesław I did not help his son-in-law, and although he demanded that Yaroslav Volodimerovich return his daughter, information about her disappears. The Primary Chronicle writes about Sviatopolk that he lost his mind and died somewhere 'between Bohemia and Lyakh [Poland]'. Yaroslav the Wise finally became the uncontested supreme ruler of Kievan Rus'. However, it would be only five more years when another brother, Mstislav of Chernigov, challenged Yaroslav and fought him to a draw at the Battle of Listven (1024).