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Literacy in the United States

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Through Gross domestic product, Missionary and Secularity

In 2023, 28% of adults scored at or below Level 1, 29% at Level 2, and 44% at Level 3 or above. Adults scoring in the lowest levels of literacy increased 9 percentage points between 2017 and 2023. In 2017, 19% of U.S. adults achieved a Level 1 or below in literacy, while 48% scored at Level 3 or above.

Adults scoring at Level 3 or above are considered "proficient at working with information and ideas in texts" (see also § Definitions below). Adults scoring below Level 1 can comprehend simple sentences and short paragraphs with minimal structure but will struggle with multi-step instructions or complex sentences, while those at Level 1 can locate explicitly cued information in short texts, lists, or simple digital pages with minimal distractions but will struggle with multi-page texts and complex prose. In general, both groups struggle reading complex sentences, texts requiring multiple-step processing, and texts with distractions.

A 2020 analysis by Gallup in conjunction with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy estimated that the U.S. economic output could increase by $2.2 trillion annually—approximately 10% of the national GDP—if all adults were at Level 3.

History

Colonial era

Literacy in the colonial era was primarily defined as the ability to read, with writing considered a secondary skill. The significance of literacy varied according to region, social class, and occupation, but it played a fundamental role in religious practice, legal affairs, and the dissemination of political ideas.

Regional differences in literacy rates were pronounced. In New England, literacy was relatively high due to the Puritan emphasis on Bible reading. Colonial laws, such as the Massachusetts School Laws of the 1640s, mandated basic education, contributing to widespread literacy among the population. In the Middle Colonies, literacy rates were moderate, reflecting the region's religious and ethnic diversity. Education was often provided through private tutors, church-run schools, or apprenticeships. The Southern Colonies exhibited lower literacy rates, particularly among poorer whites and enslaved individuals. Enslaved people were denied access to education while poor whites were only able to attend school for which they could pay, since Southern state governments typically did not fund public schools.

Religious institutions were central to literacy education throughout the colonies. Churches frequently served as educational centers, with ministers and religious leaders promoting literacy to facilitate scripture reading. Educational materials commonly included the New England Primer, hornbooks, and the Bible.

Gender disparities in literacy were evident across the colonies. Men, particularly those in urban centers or from higher social classes, were more likely to be literate than women. In New England, some women acquired basic literacy through home instruction or religious communities. However, in the Middle and Southern Colonies, formal education for women was limited, and many remained illiterate.

Enslaved and Native American populations faced significant obstacles to literacy. In the Southern Colonies, laws were enacted to restrict the education of enslaved individuals, as literacy was perceived as a potential means of resistance. Nevertheless, some enslaved individuals acquired literacy, often in secret. Missionary efforts to educate Native American tribes occasionally included literacy instruction, although such efforts were typically tied to religious conversion rather than secular education.

Literacy played a critical role in colonial society, particularly in the dissemination of political ideas. Newspapers, pamphlets, and broadsides facilitated public discourse and contributed to the mobilization of support for independence during the American Revolution.

19th century

19th century literacy rates in the United States were relatively high, despite the country's decentralized educational system. By 1875, the U.S. literacy rate was approximately 80 percent.

According to Lee Soltow and Edward Stevens, literacy was a foundational element in the development of American society, treating it as both a "collective good" and a critical socioeconomic indicator. In addition to seeing literacy as an individual skill, they emphasized its role in the broader transformation of society and economy. Their analysis focuses on several key dimensions of its importance. Literacy became a socioeconomic driver of rising economic and material conditions. They argue that literacy was essential for economic participation because literacy levels were intrinsically linked to occupation, wealth, and social standing. The spread of literacy increased the size of an informed citizenry capable of participating in an increasingly complex market economy. Soltow and Stevens argue the rapid rise of the "Common School" (the public school movement) in the North was a deliberate, state-government sponsored effort to standardize literacy. This led to shared values and a common language across a growing and diverse population. They say state government involvement in education was a direct response to the need for a more productive labor force during the 19th-century industrial expansion, especially in the Northeastern states.

Public schools were rare in the South before the late 19th century. Wealthy planters hired tutors for their children. Emphasizing the importance of Bible reading, many Protestant churches operated Sunday Schools that taught reading.

During the industrial revolution, many nursery schools, preschools and kindergartens were established and helped promote basic literacy.

Enslaved people and literacy

In the history of slavery in colonial America and later the United States, slave owners almost always made efforts to limit the education of enslaved people, including curtailing literacy. Lawmakers in slave states such as Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana eventually established various anti-literacy laws that criminalized teaching or attempting to teach an enslaved person to read or write. States established these laws in part due to fears that increased literacy among enslaved people could lead to a slave rebellion. These laws are the only known instances of anti-literacy laws in history.

20th century

By 1900 44% of black people remained illiterate. There were significant improvements for African Americans and other races in the early 20th century; the descendants of former slaves up in the Reconstruction era and often had some chance to obtain a basic education. The gap in illiteracy between white and black adults continued to narrow through the 20th century, and in 1979, the rates were approximately equal.

There has been a notable increase in American citizens' educational attainment since then, but studies have also indicated a decline in reading performance which began during the 1970s. Although the U.S. Adult Education and Literacy System (AELS) and legislation such as the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 had highlighted education as an issue of national importance, the push for high levels of mass literacy has been a recent development; expectations of literacy have sharply increased over past decades.

21st century

Throughout the 20th century, there was an increase in federal acts and models to ensure that children continued to develop their literacy skills as a part of receiving a proper education. Starting in the 2000s, there has been an increase of immigrants in cities, the majority of whose children speak languages other than English and who thus fall behind their peers in reading. Elementary school literacy has been the focus of educational reform since that time.

With the landmark publication of A Nation at Risk by the US National Commission on Excellence in Education in 1983, concern for the performance of American students relative to other student bodies worldwide intensified. It has been observed that adolescents undergo a critical transition during their grade-school years which prepares them to learn and apply knowledge to their actions and behavior in the outside world. As the job market has become more demanding, the rigor of educational institutions has increased to prepare students for the more-complex tasks which will be expected of them. Addressing sub-par reading performance and low youth literacy rates is important to achieve high levels of mass literacy because the issue of sub-par academic performance is compounded. Students who struggle at an early age continue to struggle throughout their school years because they do not have the same foundation of understanding and breadth of knowledge to build upon as their peers; this often translates to below-average, poor literacy levels in later grades and into adulthood.

In 2019, the National Center for Educational Statistics reported that 4.1% of US adults had literacy abilities below level 1, defined as "unable to successfully determine the meaning of sentences, read relatively short texts to locate a single piece of information, or complete simple forms", and could be classified as functionally illiterate.

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated school closures which had a negative impact on child literacy in America. More than one million eligible children did not enroll in kindergarten for the 2021–2022 school year in the U.S.

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