Mani (prophet)

Life

This work and other evidence discovered in the 20th century establish Mani as a historical individual. For an updated critique of the standard account and a radically alternative proposal, see Iain Gardner's The Founder of Manichaeism: Rethinking the Life of Mani.

Early life

Mani was born near Seleucia-Ctesiphon, perhaps in the town of Mardinu in the Babylonian district of Nahr Kutha; according to other accounts in the town Abrumya. Mani's father Pātik (Middle Persian: Pattūg; Koine Greek: Παττικιος, Arabic: Futtuq), a native of Ecbatana (now Hamadan, Iran), was a member of the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcesaites. His mother was of Parthian descent (from "the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan"); her name is reported variously, among others Maryam. Mani was closely related on his mother's side to the famous Parthian ruling dynasty, the Arsacids.

Mani was raised in a heterodox environment in Babylon. The Elcesaite community was ostensibly Jewish Christian, though with some Gnostic features due to their Ebionite heritage, such as the belief in recurring incarnations of heavenly apostles, one of whom was a docetic Christ. It is believed that his Christian roots might have been influenced by Marcion and Bardaisan. At ages 12 and 24 Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his (syzygos), calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Jesus in a new gospel. It is said that his appearance was a mixture of Iranian and Mesopotamian features. On the one hand he looked like a warrior, on the other like a magician. In some later texts he was described as lame, a characteristic possibly attributed to him by his opponents.

Travelling to India

Mani then travelled to India (Sakas in present day Afghanistan), where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies, as well as Buddhism. Al-Biruni says Mani only traveled to India after being banished from Persia, but this might be an error or a second journey.

Return from India

Returning in 242, Mani presented himself to Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the Shabuhragan. Shapur was not converted to Manichaeism and remained Zoroastrian, but he favored Mani's teachings, which mixed Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, and took him into his court. Mani is said to have performed miracles, including levitation, teleporting and healing, which helped him to gain converts in the Iranian elite. He was also famed as a painter.

Imprisonment and execution

Shapur's successor Hormizd I, who reigned only for one year, continued to patronize Mani, but his successor Bahram I, a follower of the intolerant Zoroastrian reformer Kartir, began to persecute the Manichaeans. He incarcerated Mani, who died in prison within a month, in 274. According to sources, he passed his last days comforting his visiting disciples, teaching that his death would have no other consequence than the return of his soul to the realm of light.

Mani's followers depicted Mani's death as a crucifixion in a conscious analogy to the crucifixion of Jesus; al-Biruni says that Bahram ordered the execution of Mani. There is a story which claims that he was flayed, and his corpse suspended over the main gate of the great city of Gundeshapur; however, there is no historical basis for this account. It is more plausible that his body was mutilated via post-mortem decapitation, and his head put on display, which may be the original source of the embellishment.

Teaching

Mani's teaching was intended to "combine", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Marcionism, Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic movements, Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions, and mystery cults. It is based on a rigid dualism of good and evil, locked in eternal struggle, which was a "familiar mytholog[ical]" element of the time in many spiritual traditions that Mani deliberately borrowed.

In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation was possible through education, self-denial, fasting and chastity. According to al-Biruni, a 10th-century Iranian scholar, Mani claimed to be the Paraclete promised in the New Testament, and the Last Prophet. However according to Lodewijk J. R. Ort, the term last prophet may "in all probability derived from the Quran by al-Biruni in order to formulate Mani's pretensions and religious claims". Therefore Lodewijk J. R. Ort concludes that a definitive pronouncement about the final character of Mani's appearance is not mentioned in Manichaean scriptures.

While his religion was not strictly a movement of Christian Gnosticism in the earlier mode, Mani did declare himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ", and extant Manichaean poetry frequently extols Jesus and his mother, Mary, with the highest reverence. Manichaean tradition also claims that Mani was the reincarnation of different religious figures including Jesus, Zoroaster, and the historical Buddha.

Mani's followers were organized in a church structure, divided into a class of "elects" (electi) and "auditors" (auditores). Only the electi are required to follow the laws strictly, while the auditores care for them, hoping to become electi in their turn after reincarnation.

Christian and Islamic tradition

Late Antique Christian accounts in the West

The Western Christian tradition of Mani largely comes from St. Cyril of Jerusalem. According to his account, Scythianos, a Saracen, who dwelt in Alexandria and "imitated the life of Aristotle, wrote four books, the first, a Gospel, the second, a book of Chapters, the third a book of Mysteries, and the fourth, a book of Treasure. When Scythianos went to Palestine, God killed him with a disease. However, Scythianos had a disciple, Terebinthus, who travelled to Persia, where he changed his name to Buddas. While he was there, he angered the priests of Mithras, so he took refuge with a widow, he went to the rooftops and summoned the "demons of the air", he was then smote by God, and the widow buried his corpse.

The woman at whose house he lodged buried him, inherited his money, and bought a slave boy named Cubricus. This boy grew up surrounded by philosophers, and when his adoptive mother died, he inherited the surviving books of Scythianos, then travelled into Persia, where he took the name of Manes.

According to Jerome, Archelaus wrote his account of his disputation with "Manichaeus" in Syriac, whence it was translated into Greek. The Greek is lost, and the work, apart from extracts, subsists only in a Latin translation from the Greek, of doubtful age and fidelity, probably made after the 5th century. By Photius it is stated that Heraclean, bishop of Chalcedon, in his book against the Manichaeans, said the Disputation of Archelaus was written by one Hegemonius, an author not otherwise traceable, and of unknown date.

In the Latin narrative, "Manes" is said to have come, after his flight from court, from Arabion, a frontier fortress, to Caschar or Carchar, a town said to be in Roman Mesopotamia, in the hope of converting an eminent Christian there, named Marcellus, to whom he had sent a letter beginning: "Manichaeus apostle of Jesus Christ, and all the saints and virgins with me, send peace to Marcellus." In his train he brought twenty-two youths and virgins.

At the request of Marcellus, he debated on religion with bishop Archelaus, by whom he was vanquished, whereupon he set out to return to Persia. On his way he proposed to debate with a priest at the town of Diodorides. But Archelaus came to take the priest's place, and again defeated him, whereupon, fearing to be given up to the Persians by the Christians, he returned to Arabion.

At this stage Archelaus introduces in a discourse to the people his history of "this Manes", very much to the effect of the recapitulation in Socrates. Among the further details are these: that Scythianus lived "in the time of the Apostles", that Terebinthus said the name of Buddas had been imposed on him, that in the mountains he had been brought up by an angel, and that a Persian prophet named Parcus, and Labdacus, son of Mithras, had accused him of being a liar and argued with him frequently.

Furthermore, that in the disputation he taught concerning the sphere, the two luminaries, the transmigration of souls, and the war of the Principia against God, that "Corbicius", about the age of sixty, translated the books of Terebinthus. He made three chief disciples, Thomas, Addas, and Hermas, of whom he sent the first to Egypt, and the second to Scythia, keeping the third with him. The two former returned when he was in prison, and that he sent them to procure for him the books of the Christians, which he then studied. According to the Latin narrative, finally, Manes on his return to Arabion was seized and taken to the Persian king, by whose orders he was flayed, his body being left to the birds, and his skin hung at the city gate.

Medieval Islamic accounts

Ya'qubi reports that Mani convinced Shapur I to convert to Manichaeism, and that Shapur was a Manichean for 10 years, and forced it upon the populace, until a Zoroastrian mobedh convinced Shapur to hold a debate between Mani and the Zoroastrian clergy, which Mani lost, causing Shapur to revert to Zoroastrianism, Mani then fled to India to avoid execution, where he remained until Shapur died, afterwards, the Manicheans, noting that Shapur's successor, Hormizd I, had died and been replaced by his elder brother, Bahram I, who was preoccupied, this convinced Mani to return to Persia. Bahram then learned where Mani was, and had him summoned to the court, where the Mobedh said "Let him melt lead for me and for you and pour (it) on my stomach and on your stomach, and whichever one of us is unhurt by this (ordeal), he will be correct." Mani protested, arguing that what the Mobedh had suggested was a "deed of darkness", so Bahram had Mani arrested instead, and then in the night, had Mani flayed, his body stuffed with straw, and then beheaded him. According to Al-Tha'alibi, Bahram I had the mobedhs debate Mani, after Mani said that destroying the body was productive to the spirit, Bahram responded by saying "‘We will start with the destruction of your body and deal with you in accordance with what you teach!" Mani was then skinned alive, his skin was filled with straw, and suspended over one of the gates of Jundaysābūr. Afterwards, 12,000 Manichaeans were put to death.