Synergism

Theology

Historical developments

Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed.

Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will. The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "human monergism". This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431).

In response, Augustine proposed a view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a compatibilist form of theological determinism. The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism". However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination, which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475).

During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed semi-Pelagianism. This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace. The semi-Pelagian view is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism".

In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace. This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief. This view, often referred to as "semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism". The Council also rejected predestination to evil.

Characterization of the Pelagian–Augustinian salvation framework

The Pelagian–Augustinian framework serves as a key paradigm for understanding contemporary forms of synergism. Augustine argued that prevenient grace is necessary to prepare the human will for conversion. He maintained that God predetermined parents to seek baptism for their newborns, linking water baptism to regeneration. Furthermore, he viewed the divine grace that brings about conversion as unfailing.

The semi-Augustinian stance builds upon Augustinian thought, also associating regeneration with water baptism. However, it rejects predetermination, allowing space for human decision, particularly in the act of faith. Thus, it maintains that vocation and the gift of faith are divine actions through prevenient grace, while faith itself is a human action, and regeneration remains a divine action. The semi-Pelagian position holds that vocation and conversion through faith are human actions, while the "increase of faith" bringing regeneration is a divine action. In Pelagianism, humans possess the innate capacity to obey God. Consequently, all steps of salvation are voluntary human actions.

The rationale outlined above is synthesized in the following table:

Views among Christian denominations

Denominations traditionally upholding synergism

Catholic theology

Synergism is an important part of the salvation theology of the Catholic Church. Following the Second Council of Orange (529), the Council of Trent (1545–63) reaffirmed the resistibility of prevenient grace and its synergistic nature. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) teaches that the ability of the human will to respond to divine grace is itself conferred by grace. This synergistic process applies to both justification and sanctification. The sacraments of the Catholic Church such as baptism and the Eucharist, are part of God's grace and are thus a vital element in the synergistic process of salvation.

Eastern Orthodox theology

In Eastern Orthodox theology, God's grace and the human response work together in a "cooperation" or "synergy". This perspective has historically presented less theological tension on this issue compared to the Christian West. In the salvation process, divine grace always precedes any human action. Man possesses gnomic will, often interpreted as implying a form of libertarian freedom, and must consciously respond to divine grace. This understanding is broadly comparable, though not identical to the Arminian protestant synergism. The Orthodox synergistic process of salvation includes baptism as a response to divine grace. Deification, or theosis, is also an integral part of this process.

Anabaptist theology

Anabaptists hold to synergism, teaching that "both God and man play real and necessary parts in the reconciling relationship which binds them." Anabaptists have a high view of the moral capacities of humans when "enlivened by the active agency of the Holy Spirit".

Arminian theology

Christians who adhere to Arminian theology, such as Methodists, believe that salvation is synergistic. Jacobus Arminius first emphasized the role of prevenient grace, which involves a monergistic act of God, followed by "subsequent" act involving a synergistic work. Thus, for Arminians, prevenient grace involves a synergistic process. Similarly, John Wesley held that salvation begins with divine initiative. Additionally, Wesleyan-Arminian theology teaches that both justification and sanctification are synergistic. The Arminian perspective on salvation is often described as "God-initiated synergism". This perspective aligns closely with the main characteristic of the early semi-Augustinian thought.

Semi-Pelagian view

Semi-Pelagianism is present in many current evangelical denominations. It holds that a person can initiate faith independently, without prevenient grace, while its continuation through regeneration depends on God’s grace. This has led to its characterization as "human-initiated synergism". After the Reformation, Reformed theologians used the term "semi-Pelagianism" to describe both "semi-Pelagianism" and "semi-Augustinianism," the latter being a divine-initiated synergism.

Denominations traditionally upholding monergism

Lutheran theology

Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects. He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation. Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism. Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism. The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of the human will in conversion.

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation. Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view. While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.

Concerning preservation, the Lutheran confessions state that election unto salvation is, among other things, a cause of final perseverance. Similarly, sanctification is generally described as monergistic. This implies that sanctification is caused by the Holy Spirit, as the Small Catechism emphasizes. More precisely, the Formula of Concord states that, within this process, humans consciously and willingly collaborate with the Holy Spirit. This does not contradict that, within a soteriological monergistic framework, God is understood as the ultimate cause of the human actions, including sanctification.

Reformed theology

In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence. For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God. In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism. Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.

Anglican theology

Anglicanism originally inclined toward monergism due to its Lutheran and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations. The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition. They reflect a complex interplay of Calvinist influence, Catholic practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles. Today, in some Anglican denominations, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases. Early Anglican leaders such as Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction. However, following the Stuart Restoration (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism. Afterward, the Evangelical movement within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its Reformed roots. Related groups like the Church Society tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.

Conversely, high church and Anglo-Catholic traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the early Church Fathers and emphasizing the sacramental life, human free will, and cooperation with divine grace. Proto-Arminian figure Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) or Jeremy Taylor upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call. In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as George Pretyman Tomline and Harold Browne also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light. In the 20th century, this synergistic stance was famously exemplified by Anglican writer C. S. Lewis, who emphasized the necessity of human free will in cooperating with divine grace.