War of the Burgundian Succession

War of succession

By the spring of 1477, the conflict escalated on two fronts, first being the one between Louis and Mary, and the other occurring in several provinces between forces loyal to Mary and those that opposed her rule. Louis sought to exploit those internal conflicts and uprisings (such as the Guelderian War of Independence, 1477–1499) in Mary′s lands, and decide to capture more territories, including domains that laid outside the French realm, and belonging to the Holy Roman Empire, such as the County of Burgundy (Franche-Comté), the Duchy of Luxembourg and several other territories.

Besides the French candidate for Mary′s hand, there was also the captive Guelderian duke, Adolf of Egmont, who was released by Flemish rebels in Ghent on the condition that he would liberate Tournai from the French. This way, Mary's party could strike two blows in one move: achieve peace between Burgundy and rebelling Guelders, and forge an alliance between both powers against France. The Siege of Tournai (1477), however, was a failure, which complicated the reconquest of Artois and Picardy. Moreover, Adolf was killed in action (27 June), which eliminated the Guelderian candidate, and prompted the States of Guelders to ally themselves with France instead, continuing their uprising against Burgundy.

Mary's eye was then captured by the Habsburg archduke of Austria, Maximilian I. He possessed the means necessary to repel the French armies, and the Habsburg dynastic forecasts were favourable. On 19 August 1477 the wedding took place, thereby joining the houses of Burgundy and Habsburg together. Archduke Maximilian undertook intense efforts to retain as many of the Burgundian hereditary provinces, in which he had to fight off both France in the south and Guelders in the north, and simultaneously repress internal revolts, mainly in Flanders.

Maximilian first turned to diplomacy, reminding French king Louis of the 1475 Peace of Soleuvre in order to retrieve all French-occupied Burgundian territories. He even managed to get his father Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor to threaten France with an Imperial war because of the occupation of Cambrésis. Louis XI relented, agreed to a ceasefire and returned some border cities including the Imperial City of Cambrai in the autumn of 1477. However, the Duchy of Burgundy and the County of Burgundy – the Burgundian heartland – remained in French hands for the time being. In the winter of 1477–8, Maximilian failed to procure the aid of his father Frederick III (who was at war with Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus) and of his cousin Sigismund of Tyrol (who had financial problems and depended on a French pension, so remained neutral).

In 1478, the provinces of Auxois, Charolais, and Beaune rebelled and tried to secede from the French king, but they had to surrender again in 1479. Louis XI then attempted an invasion of Artois. On 7 August 1479, the French troops were defeated by an army of Flemish and Habsburg forces in the Battle of Guinegate. Thereafter, Maximilian was occupied with the Netherlands, where he fared better in combating the Guelderians. With the conquest of Zutphen in July 1481, the Burgundians had militarily subjected Guelders, and by 1482, advocates of Guelderian independence were defeated on the diplomatic front.

Peace treaties

In 1482, Mary died and her four-year-old son Philip the Handsome succeeded as heir to her Burgundian lands, with his father Maximilian as regent. Negotiations were initiated between Maximilian and King Louis XI of France, and a compromise solutions were devised, based on the proposed marriage between Mary's and Maximilian's daughter Margaret with Louis' son, the Dauphin Charles. On those bases, the Treaty of Arras was signed on 23 December 1482. Maximilian recognized the French annexation of the Duchy of Burgundy and several other territories. Regarding the Free County of Burgundy (Franche-Comté) and County of Artois, they were treated as Margaret's dowry, and thus remained in French hands. France agreed to return the affluent County of Flanders, which passed to Maximilian (but soon rebelled against the archduke).

In 1483, the official engagement took place between Margaret and Charles, who became the King of France upon his father's death later that year. Since they were both still young, the conclusion of marriage was postponed. By 1491, Charles decided to abandon the idea of marrying Margaret, thus renouncing the Treaty of Arras. In order to avoid war, he agreed to conclude the new Treaty of Senlis (1493), and return Margaret's dowry to the Habsburgs. Thus, the Free County of Burgundy (Franche-Comté), Artois and Charolais were ceded by France to young duke Philip the Handsome. The final settlement of several remaining disputes was achieved much later, by the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), also known as the Ladies' Peace.

Only the situation in Guelders went unresolved for the time being. The 1491–92 Bread and Cheese Revolt in the County of Holland spilled over to Guelders, where popular revolts ousted the Burgundian troops. Meanwhile, the States of Guelders and regent Catherine of Guelders managed to secure the release of her nephew Charles II of Egmont from French captivity. After a host of French soldiers escorted him through Habsburg-Burgundian territory, Charles reached Arnhem in March 1492, and amidst great popular celebration, was able to assume power as the new independent duke of Guelders, in alliance with France. In 1493, the knighthood and cities of Guelders convened in Nijmegen, deciding to send the French troops home, and from their own funds raise a standing army of 2,000 men, wearing the duke's colours. Maximilian conducted two unsuccessful campaigns against Guelders in 1494 and 1495, while his son Philip the Handsome launched two more failed operations in 1495 and 1496. Finally, Burgundy and Guelders concluded a truce in 1497.