Amenemhat III

Reign

Accession

Coregency

It is assumed that Amenemhat III took the primary role as the regnal dates roll over from year 19 of Senusret III (highest dated attestation) to year 1 of Amenemhat III. In Year 20 of Senusret III, his son Amenemhat III was elevated to the status of co-regent, with Amenemhat III celebrating his Year 1 as junior coregent (Horus), while his father became senior coregent (Osiris). The co-regency seems to be established from several indicators, though not all scholars agree and some instead argue for sole reigns for both kings. For the following twenty years, Senusret III and Amenemhat III shared the throne, with Amenemhat III taking the active role as king.

These two kings – Senusret III and Amenemhat III – presided over the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. Senusret III had pursued aggressive military action to curb incursions from tribes people from Nubia. These campaigns were conducted across several years and were brutal against the native populations, including slaughter of men, enslavement of women and children, and the burning of fields. He also sent a military expedition into Syria-Palestine, enemies of Egypt since the reign of Senusret I. His internal policies targeted the increasing power of provincial governors, transferring power back to the reigning monarch. It is disputed whether he dismantled the nomarchical system. Senusret III also formed the basis for the legendary character Sesostris described by Manetho and Herodotus. As a consequence of Senusret III's administrative and military policies, Amenemhat III inherited a peaceful and stable Egypt, which reached its cultural and economic zenith under his direction.

Military campaigns

There is very little evidence for military expeditions during Amenemhat III's reign. One rock inscription records a small mission in regnal year nine. It was found in Nubia, near the fortress of Kumma. The short text reports that a military mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who states that he went north with a small troop and that there were no deaths on the return south. There is a stela dated to regnal 33 that was discovered at Kerma, south of the Third Cataract, discussing the construction of a wall, though this stela must have originated elsewhere as Kerma was beyond Egypt's control at this time.

Mining expeditions

Exploitation of the quarries of Egypt and the Sinai for turquoise and copper peaked during his reign. A collection of more than 50 texts were inscribed at Serabit el-Khadim, Wadi Maghara, and Wadi Nasb. The efforts here were so extensive that near-permanent settlements formed around them. The quarries at Wadi Hammamat (schist), Wadi el-Hudi (amethyst), Tura (limestone), Hatnub (alabaster), Aswan (red granite) and throughout Nubia (diorite) were all also exploited. These all translated into an extensive building program, particularly in the development of Faiyum.

Sinai peninsula

Amenemhat III's activities in the Sinai peninsula are well-attested. There were expeditions to Wadi Maghara in regnal years 2, 30, and 41–43, with one further expedition in an indiscernible 20 + x year. The temple of Hathor was decorated during the expedition in year 2, which is also the only expedition for which the mining of copper is attested. A related inscription found in Ayn Soukhna suggests that the mission originated from Memphis and perhaps crossed the Red Sea to the peninsula by boat. A single expedition in Wadi Nasb is attested to his 20th regnal year. Between 18 and 20 expeditions to Serabit el-Khadim have been attested to Amenemhat III's reign: in years 2, 4–8, 13, 15, 20, 23, 25, 27, 30, 38, 40, 44, possibly also 18, 29, and 45, alongside a 10 + x and x + 17 years, and there are many inscriptions whose date is indeterminable.

Egypt

One inscription dating to year 43 of Amenemhat III's reign comes from Tura and refers to the quarrying of limestone there for a mortuary temple, either that at Dahshur or Hawara. A stela retrieved from the massif of Gebel Zeit, 50 km (31 mi) south of Ras Ghareb, on the Red Sea coast shows activity at the Galena mines there. The stela bears a partial date suggesting that it was inscribed after regnal year 10.

Several expeditions to Wadi Hammamat where schist was quarried were recorded. These date to regnal years 2, 3, 19, 20 and 33. Three inscriptions from year 19 note the workforce of labourers and soldiers employed and the outcome of the efforts resulting in ten 2.6 m (8.5 ft) tall seated statues of the king being made. The statues were destined for the Labyrinth at Hawara. A few expeditions were sent to Wadi el-Hudi, south-east of Aswan, at the southern border of Egypt, where amethyst was collected. These enterprises date to regnal years 1, 11, 20, and 28. An expedition was also sent to Wadi Abu Agag, near Aswan, in regnal year 13.

Nubia

North-west of Abu Simbel and west of Lake Nasser lie the quarries of Gebel el-Asr in Lower Nubia. The site is best known as the source of diorite for six of Khafre's seated statues. The locale was also a source of gneiss and chalcedony in the Middle Kingdom. The Chalcedony deposits are also known as 'stela ridge' as it was a place where commemorative stelae and votive offerings were left. Nine of these commemorative objects date to the reign of Amenemhat III, specifically regnal years 2 and 4.

Trade expeditions

Land of Punt

A stela was discovered at Mersa on the Red Sea coast, by Rosanna Pirelli in 2005 that detailed an expedition to Punt during the reign of Amenemhat III. The expedition was organized by chief steward Senbef. Under his direction, two contingents were formed. The first was led by an Amenhotep and bound for Punt to acquire incense. The second led by a Nebesu was sent to the mines referred to as Bia-Punt to procure exotic metals. There were a total of between two and five expeditions organized during Amenemhat III's rule. Two of the stelae recovered from the site are dated indicating activity there in his 23rd and 41st regnal years.

Heb Sed Festival

In his regnal Year 30, Amenemhat III celebrated his Sed festival marking the renewal of royal authority. Evidence for this jubilee is observedin inscriptions and architectural fragments found at his mortuary complex at Hawara and the temple of Sobek in Shedet.. These records highlight the king's extensive focus on the Faiyum region, where his irrigation projects and monumental constructions reached their peak during this phase of his reign.

At Bubastis (Tell Basta, Nile Delta), there are architectural elements providing evidence for his Heb Sed. Excavations revealed a large mudbrick palace complex, covering approximately 16,000 square meters, which is believed to have served as a royal residence or administrative center during the Twelfth Dynasty.. A key artifact from this site is a limestone door lintel that depicts the king twice and explicitly mentions his "first sed-festival," providing physical confirmation of the jubilee's celebration in the Delta region.

Building program

Amenemhat III's building program included monuments in Khatana, Tell el-Yahudiyya, and Bubastis. At Bubastis, Amenemhat III probably built a palace which hosts relief art containing his name. Of note is a relief that depicts Amenemhat III officiating his sed-festival. Further works include the enlargement of the temples to Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim and Ptah in Memphis, the construction of a temple in Quban, and the reinforcement of fortresses at Semna. At Elephantine a fragment of stela bearing a building inscription was found dated to his regnal year 44. A very similar inscription from possibly the same year was found at Elkab, which indicates the extension of a defensive wall built by Senusret II. Another find at Elephantine was a door lintel of the Eleventh Dynasty, where Amenemhat III added an inscription dated to his regnal year 34. Inscriptions with the king's name have also been uncovered at Lisht, Memphis, and Heracleopolis and statues of the king were found in Thebes. No site, however, received as much attention as Faiyum, with which Amenemhat III is most closely associated.

In Faiyum, Amenemhat built a huge temple dedicated to Sobek at Kiman Faras. He dedicated a chapel to Renenutet at Medinet Madi. This small temple with three chapels is the best preserved of his temple works. It was built toward the end of his reign and completed by his successor, Amenemhat IV. In Biahmu, he built a massive structure with two colossal 12 m (39 ft) tall seated quartzite statues of himself. These face Lake Moeris, for which he is credited with excavating, although how much of this work was conducted by Amenemhat III is unknown. The work on Lake Moeris had been inaugurated by Senusret II to link the Faiyum Depression with Bahr Yussef. This project reclaimed land downstream at the edges of Lake Moeris allowing it to be farmed. A naturally formed valley 16 km (9.9 mi) long and 1.5 km (0.93 mi) wide was converted into a canal to link the depression with Bahr Yussef. The canal was cut to a depth of 5 m (16 ft) and given sloped banks at a ratio of 1:10 and an average inclination of 0.01° along its length. It is known as Mer-Wer or the Great Canal. The area continued to be used until 230 BC when the Lahun branch of the Nile silted up. Amenemhat III kept close watch on the inundation levels of the Nile, as demonstrated by inscriptions left at Kumma and Semna. The Nile level peaked in his regnal year 30 at 5.1 m (17 ft), but was followed by a dramatic decline so that it measured 0.5 m (1.6 ft) by regnal year 40. The most enduring of his works are the two pyramids that he built for himself, the first king since Sneferu in the Fourth Dynasty to build more than one. His pyramids are in Dahshur and Hawara.

Succession

Order of Succession

The succession following the long reign of Amenemhat III is characterized by a lack of clear male heirs, which many scholars believe contributed to the eventual decline of the Twelfth Dynasty. While the principle of primogeniture was the standard, no sons of Amenemhat III are definitively recorded; historical evidence focuses primarily on his daughters, such as Neferuptah and Sobekneferu. Neferuptah, whose name was uniquely enclosed in a cartouche, may have been groomed as a successor but predeceased her father. This led to a potential crisis in the royal line, with scholars such as Aidan Dodson suggesting that the lack of a clear "King's Son" (Crown Prince) likely caused instability within the royal estate.

The transition of power was eventually managed through the appointment of Amenemhat IV as a junior coregent in regnal Year 44. The exact familial relationship between the two rulers remains a subject of academic debate. As Amenemhat IV is not titled as a "King's Son," and his mother, King's Mother Hetepti, is never titled as a "King's Wife" of Amenemhat III, many Egyptologists, including Kim Ryholt, suggest he may have been a son-in-law or a member of a collateral branch of the royal family.

The brevity of Amenemhat IV’s nine-year reign, combined with his own advanced age at accession, suggests a period of political fragility. Scholars often interpret this transition—marked by a coregency necessitated by Amenemhat III's longevity—as a precursor to the fragmentation of central authority that defined the end of the Middle Kingdom.

Coregency

His reign ends with a brief co-regency with his successor Amenemhat IV. At Semna, a rock inscription equates regnal Year 1 of Amenemhat IV with regnal Year 44 of Amenemhat III (or perhaps 46–48). Several stelae belonging to middle-ranking officials from this period bear the cartouches of both kings, showing that the bureaucracy recognized their joint authority.

• Year 44 of Amenemhat III (senior coregent) appointed Year 1 of Amenemhat IV (junior coregent), most likely on I Akhet Day 1 (New Year).
• Year [45] of Amenemhat III and Year 2 of Amenemhat IV
• Year [46] of Amenemhat III dies of old age (perhaps shortly after III Peret (vessel)) and Year 3 of Amenemhat IV becomes sole ruler.

Reign length

His reign is attested for at least 45 years, though a papyrus fragment from El-Lahun mentioning 'regnal year 46, month 1 of akhet, day 22' probably dates to his rule as well, since the village was founded by Amenemhat III's grandfather, Senusret II, and no other Twelfth Dynasty ruler after Senusret II reigned for more than 40 years. The highest date might be found on a bowl from Elephantine bearing regnal year 46, month 3 of peret. This attribution is favoured by the Egyptologist Cornelius von Pilgrim, but rejected by the Egyptologist Wolfram Grajetzki who places it in the early Middle Kingdom.

• Highest attestation: Year 46, I Akhet Day 22 (uncertain) or Year 46, III Peret (uncertain).

Royal Court

High Officials

The vizier Kheti (H̱ty) held office around year 29 of Amenemhat III's reign, as is attested on a papyrus from el-Lahun. The papyrus is a business document authored by the vizier in his office discussing payment of two brothers named Ahy-seneb (Ỉhy-snb) for their services. At that time one brother, Ahy-seneb Ankh-ren (ꜥnḫ-rn), was an 'assistant to the treasurer', yet on a later papyrus containing his will, dated to year 44 of Amenemhat III's reign, he had become the 'director of works'. This latter papyrus contains two dates: year 44, month II of Shemu, day 13 and year 2, month II of Akhet, day 18. The latter date refers to the reign of either Amenemhat IV or Sobekneferu. There is one other hieratic text and also a limestone table on which Ahy-seneb Ankh-ren is attested. The other brother, Ahy-seneb Wah (Wꜣḥ), was a wab-priest and 'superintendent of priestly orders of Sepdu, lord of the East'.

A further vizier datable to the reign was Ameny (Ỉmny). Ameny is attested on two rock inscriptions from Aswan. The first found by Flinders Petrie on the road between Philae and Aswan, and the second found by Jacques de Morgan on the right bank of the river nile between Bar and Aswan. The inscriptions bear the names of his family members, including his wife Sehotepibre Nehy (Sḥtp-ỉb-rꜥ Nḥy) who is also attested on a stela in Copenhagen National Museum.

Khnumhotep (H̱nmw-ḥtp) was an official that held office for at least three decades from Senusret II's first regnal year through to Amenemhat III's reign. At the beginning of Senusret II's reign, he was a chamberlain, but by the end of his life he held both the office of vizier and chief steward. His tomb in Dahshur also attests to many other titles including 'high official', 'royal seal-bearer', 'chief lector-priest', 'master of secrets', as well as 'vizier' and 'overseer of the city'.

The treasurer Ikhernofret (Y-ẖr-nfrt) was still in office in the early years of the king's reign, as is demonstrated by a funerary stela in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. This official is among the best attested for the Middle Kingdom, though there is little known of his family. His funerary stela is dated to Amenemhat III's first regnal year and bears his name along with three of his titles: 'sealbearer of the King of Lower Egypt', 'sole friend of the king', and 'treasurer'. The treasurer is mentioned on the funerary stela of an Ameny (Ỉmny) 'chief of staff of the bureau of the vizier'. The latter part of the stela tells of the attendance of Ikhernofret and Sasetet (Sꜣ-sṯt) at a feast in Abydos at the instruction of Senusret III after a campaign against Nubia in his regnal year 19. Ameny is also mentioned on the 'stela of Sasetet' dating to the first year of Amenemhat III, where he still held the same position. Sasetet holds the title 'chief of staff of the bureau of the treasurer' in that stela.

Another treasurer under Amenemhat III is Senusretankh (S-n-wsrt-ꜥnḫ), who is known from his recently uncovered mastaba at Dahshur, near the pyramid of Senusret III. The surviving fragments of a red granite offering table recovered from the tomb bear the birth and throne names of Amenemhat III. The table further bears numerous other epithets and titles with which the owner connects himself to the king.

Another chief steward, Senbef (Snb=f) is known from an expedition stela found at Mersa and from a papyrus document. The stela contains an image of Amenemhat III presenting offerings to the god Min. Behind the king stands another official, Nebsu (Nbsw) the 'Overseer of the Cabinet of the Head of the South', effectively meaning that he was the head of a workforce. Beneath the image are inscriptions recording two expeditions to Punt alongside the names of the expedition leaders. The leads of the two expeditions are Nebsu himself and his brother Amenhotep (Ỉmn-htp), holding the title of 'scribe in charge of the seal of the treasury'.

Zamonth (Mouth of Nekhen) is known from rock inscriptions dated to Year 6 and Year 9 of Amenemhat III, reporting a military campaign against Nubia. He later became vizier.

Death and Burial

In Year 46 of Amenemhat III, the king died and was buried in his second pyramid at Hawara. Amenemhat III was deified and worshipped in the Faiyum for centuries after his passing.

Mummy

The Mummy of Amenemhat III has never been recovered, but his advanced age at death is widely accepted based on his regnal length and contemporary portraiture. Records from the Turin King List (40+x years) and inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim (Sinai 53) confirm a reign of at least 45 to 46 years. Textualt evidence of an unnamed papyrus and vessel dated Year 46 as mentioned above most likely belongs to him. In the absence of evidence for a violent succession or assassination, Egyptologists generally conclude he died of natural causes in coregency with and peaceful transition to Amenemhat IV.

The physical decline of the king in his later years is documented in his "veristic" statuary, which, according to art historian Gay Robins, depicts the monarch with heavy eyelids, sunken cheeks, and deep facial lines—a deliberate departure from the idealized youth of earlier dynasties to show a mature, aging ruler. The appointment of Amenemhat IV as co-regent in regnal Year 44 lasting potentially to Year 46 is interpreted by scholars like William Murnane as a functional transition of power, likely necessitated by the senior king’s longevity and declining health during his final years.

Pyramids

Dahshur

The construction of the pyramid at Dahshur, the Black Pyramid (Egyptian language: Sḫm Ỉmn-m-ḥꜣt meaning 'Amenemhat is Mighty' or Nfr Ỉmn-m-ḥꜣt meaning 'Amenemhat is Beautiful'/'Perfect One of Amenemhat') began in the first year of Amenemhat III's reign. The pyramid core was constructed entirely of mudbrick and stabilized through the building of a stepped core rather than with a stone framework. The structure was then encased by 5 m (16 ft; 9.5 cu) thick, fine white Tura limestone blocks held together by wooden dove-tail pegs. The pyramid was given a base length of 105 metres (344 ft; 200 cu) that was inclined towards the apex at between 54°30′ to 57°15′50″ reaching a height of 75 m (246 ft; 143 cu) for a total volume of 274,625 m³ (9,698,300 ft³). The apogee of the structure was crowned, seemingly, by a grey granite pyramidion 1.3 m (4.3 ft) high. This now resides in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, catalogued as JE 35133. The pyramidion had a band of hieroglyphic text running on all four of its sides. That the name of Amun has been erased on the pyramidion can only be the result of Akhenaten's proscription against the god.

In front of the pyramid, lay a mortuary temple of simple design comprising an offering hall and an open columned courtyard. Surrounding the complex were two mudbrick enclosing walls. From the mortuary temple an open, mudbrick walled causeway led to the valley temple. Beneath the pyramid was built a substructure with an intricate series of passages and chambers, with burial chambers for the king and two queens. The two queens, Aat and an unidentified queen, were buried here and their remains were recovered from their chambers. The king, though, was not buried here. Shortly after the completion of the pyramid superstructure, in around Amenemhat III's 15th regnal year, the substructure began to buckle with cracks appearing inside as a result of groundwater seepage. Rushed efforts were made to prevent the structure collapsing, which were successful, but just as Sneferu had decided to do with his Bent Pyramid, Amenemhat III chose to build a new one.

Hawara

The second pyramid is at Hawara (Egyptian language: Uncertain, possibly ꜥnḫ Ỉmn-m-ḥꜣt 'Amenemhat Lives'), in the Faiyum Oasis. This pyramid project was begun around Amenemhat III's 15th regnal year, after problems with the Dahshur pyramid persisted. The choice of Hawara suggests that the cultivation of Faiyum was complete and that Amenemhat III was diverting resources to that area. The pyramid had a core constructed entirely of mudbrick encased in fine white Tura limestone. The pyramid had a base length of between 102 m (335 ft; 195 cu) and 105 m (344 ft; 200 cu) with a shallower inclination of between 48° and 52° up to a peak height 58 m (190 ft; 111 cu) for a total volume of 200,158 m³ (7,068,500 ft³). The shallower inclination angle was a step taken to guard against the threat of a collapse and avoid a repeat of the failure at Dahshur. Inside the substructure, builders took further precautions, such as lining chamber pits with limestone. The burial chamber was chiselled out of a single quartzite block measuring 7 m (23 ft) by 2.5 m (8.2 ft) by 1.83 m (6.0 ft) and weighing over 100 t (110 short tons).

Before the pyramid lay a mortuary temple, that has been identified as "the Labyrinth" which Classical travellers such as Herodotus and Strabo referred to and which was said to have inspired the 'Labyrinth of Minos'. The temple was destroyed in antiquity and can only be partially reconstructed. Its floorplan covered an estimated 28,000 m² (300,000 ft²). According to Strabo's account, the temple contained as many rooms as there were nomes in Egypt, while Herodotus wrote about being led 'from courtyards into rooms, rooms into galleries, galleries into more rooms, thence into more courtyards'. A limestone statue of Sobek and another of Hathor were discovered here as were two granite shrines each containing two statues of Amenemhat III. A north-south oriented perimeter wall enclosed the entire complex which thus measured 385 m (1,263 ft) by 158 m (518 ft). The causeway has been identified near the south-west corner of the complex, but neither it nor the valley temple have been investigated.

Neferuptah

The pyramid of Neferuptah was built 2 km (1.2 mi) south-east of Amenemhat III's Hawara pyramid. It was excavated by Nagib Farag and Zaky Iskander in 1956. The superstructure of the pyramid is near completely lost and the substructure was found full of groundwater, but her burial was otherwise undisturbed, including both her sarcophagus and funerary equipment.

Attestations

Sculpture

Amenemhat III and Sensuret III are the best attested rulers of the Middle Kingdom by number of statues, with about 80 statues that can be assigned to the former. The sculpture of Amenemhat III continued the tradition of Senusret III, though it pursued a more natural and expressive physiognomy, while retaining an idealized image. A wide range of stones were used for the sculpture of the king, include white limestone, obsidian, chalcedony and copper alloy. Furthermore, the king introduced new and re-interpreted types of sculptures, many of which were inspired by far older works. Two broad facial types can be assigned to Amenemhat III: An expressive style where the face of the king has its musculature, bone structure, and furrows clearly marked which is evidently inspired by the sculpture of Senusret III, and a humanized style where the face is simplified with few or no folds or furrows to avoid sharp transitions between features and thus have a generally softer, more youthful expression.