Āśrama (stage)
Ancient Indian concept of human life stages
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The Asrama system is one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism. It is also a component of the ethical theories in Indian philosophy, where it is combined with four proper goals of human life (Purushartha), for fulfilment, happiness and spiritual liberation. Moreover, since the four asramas can be seen as the framework of an influential life-span model, they are also part of an indigenous developmental psychology which from its ancient beginnings until today has shaped the orientations and goals of many people, especially in India.
Asrama system
The four asramas system aimed to integrate renunciation into the Brahmanical society around the fourth century BCE. Initially, it offered young adults four lifelong paths post-vedic initiation: Brahmacharya (student), Gṛhastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller), and Sannyasa (renunciate). Documented in early Dharmasutras (2nd-3rd centuries BCE), it allowed free choice among these paths, which were viewed as permanent vocations. The term asrama was coined to describe these lifestyles, particularly those of exceptional Brahmins dedicated to austerities and rituals.
Under the Asrama system, the human lifespan was divided into four periods. The goal of each period was the fulfilment and development of the individual. The classical system, in the Āśrama Upanishad, the Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra and the later Dharmashastra, presents these as sequential stages of human life and recommends ages for entry to each stage, while in the original system presented in the early Dharmasutras the Asramas were four alternative available ways of life, neither presented as sequential nor with age recommendations.
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Asrama and Purushartha
The Asramas system is one facet of the complex Dharma concept in Hinduism. It is integrated with the concept of Purushartha, or four proper aims of life in Hindu philosophy, namely, Dharma (piety, morality, duties), Artha (wealth, health, means of life), Kama (love, relationships, emotions) and Moksha (liberation, freedom, self-realization). Each of the four Asramas of life are a form of personal and social environment, each stage with ethical guidelines, duties and responsibilities, for the individual and for the society. Each Asrama stage places different levels of emphasis on the four proper goals of life, with different stages viewed as steps to the attainment of the ideal in Hindu philosophy, namely Moksha.
Neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three Asramas must devote itself solely to a specific goal of life (Purushartha). The fourth stage of Sannyasa is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval texts is that Sannyas stage of life must entirely be devoted to Moksha aided by Dharma.
Dharma is held primary for all stages. Moksha is the ultimate noble goal, recommended for everyone, to be sought at any stage of life. On the other two, the texts are unclear. With the exception of Kamasutra, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasise in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,
The life span of a man is one hundred years. Dividing that time, he should attend to three aims of life in such a way that they support, rather than hinder each other. In his youth he should attend to profitable aims (artha) such as learning, in his prime to pleasure (kama), and in his old age to dharma and moksha.
— Kamasutr 1.2.1–1.2.4, Translated by Patrick Olivelle
General and cited references
- Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005). "What Can Western Psychology Learn from Indigenous Psychologies? Lessons from Hindu Psychology". In W. Friedlmeier, P. Chakkarath, & B. Schwarz (Eds.), Culture and Human Development: The Importance of Cross-cultural Research to the Social Sciences (pp. 31–51). New York: Psychology Press.
- Chakkarath, Pradeep (2013). "Indian Thoughts on Psychological Human Development". In G. Misra (Ed.), Psychology and Psychoanalysis in India (pp. 167–190). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
- Kriyananda, Swami (1998). The Hindu Way of Awakening. Crystal Clarity Publishers. ISBN 1-56589-745-5.
- Rama, Swami (1985). Perennial Psychology of the Bhagavad Gita. Himalayan Institute Press. ISBN 0-89389-090-1.