Bhartṛhari

Besides Vākyapadīya, he is also best known for his works, Mahābhāṣyatikā (a commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhashya), Vākyapadīyavṛtti (a commentary on Vākyapadīya kāṇḍas 1 and 2), and Śabdadhātusamīkṣā.

Bhartrhari's linguistic theories influenced subsequent Indian philosophical traditions, notably Advaita Vedanta, Mīmāṃsā, and Pratyabhijñā (Kashmir Shaivism), where his holistic model of meaning and Śabda-Brahman doctrine were debated extensively.

Life and background

Bhartrhari is believed to have been born in Ujjain, Malwa, India and lived in the 5th century. Details of his personal life are not known, but it is assumed, and accepted by scholars, that he lived between 485 and 540 CE. He was associated with the court of Valabhi (modern Vala, Gujarat) but decided to follow the path of Indian sages and renounced a sensual life to find higher meaning. He attempted to live a monastic life but was unable to successfully detach from worldly pleasures. After some time, he lived a life as a yogi in Ujjain till his death.

Siṃhasūrigaṇi, a 6th-century Jain writer, states that Bhartrhari studied under a grammarian named Vasurāta. Bhartrhari credits some of his theories to Vasurāta in his work the Vakyapadiya.

The Chinese traveller Yi-Jing (635-713 CE) mentions Bhartrhari in his travel notes. He claims that Bhartrhari was a Buddhist and wrote the works Vakyapadiya, Peina, and a commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhashya. Researchers have found some of the details given by Yi-Jing to be erroneous, specifically the time period that he was alive and that he was a Buddhist. Bhartrhari's philosophical position is widely held to be an offshoot of the Vyākaraṇa or grammarian school, closely allied to the realism of the Nyayas and distinctly opposed to Buddhist positions such as those of Dignaga, who was closer to phenomenalism.

According to Aitihyamala (ഐതിഹ്യമാല), the celebrated collection of Kerala legends by Kottarathil Sankunni, first published in 1909, Bhartrhari is portrayed as one of four highly learned brothers who studied the Mahābhāṣya under their father, Govindaswamikal. After completing their studies, the brothers became eager to meet Patañjali, the author of the Mahābhāṣya, personally. However, when they went in search of him, they discovered that he had already passed away. The text preserves a Sanskrit verse attributed to Bhartrhari expressing his sorrow at having missed Patañjali. A separate chapter of Aitihyamala recounts the popular legendary tale of Bhartrhari's renunciation of worldly life. In the story, a magical fruit conferring immortality passes, unbeknownst to Bhartrhari, through a chain of unfaithful lovers. Eventually, he discovers his wife's infidelity, leading him to renounce worldly pleasures and embrace an ascetic life. This narrative should be understood as part of Kerala's oral and legendary tradition rather than as established historical scholarship.

Distinction between Grammarian and Poet

Indian traditional stories and literary works have long linked the grammarian Bhartrhari to the King Bharthari, the elder brother of King Vikramaditya of Ujjain. The king Bharthari who composed the poetical treatise Śatakatraya, switched from pleasure-seeking activities at the royal court to complete renunciation. This legend was popularized in Indology by accounts such as that of a 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Yi-Jing, who stated that Bharthari wavered seven times between opting to join the Buddhist orders and living the life of a layman.

However, modern scholars including K. A. Subramania Iyer and Bimal Krishna Matilal delineate the poet-king Bharthari from the philosopher Bhartrhari. The latter's works show a rigorous philosophical background. His non-buddhist, monistic epistemology (Śabdādvaita), and his grammatical works in Vākyapadīya are in stark contrast with the conventional and devotional subjects of the Śatakas. While some scholars leave the issue of identity unresolved, others believe that the philosopher Bhartrhari was a specialized scholar who lived around 450–510 CE.

Śatakatraya

The Śatakatraya ("Three Centuries": śataka, "century"; traya, "three") consists of three collections of 100 verses each. The collections are Niti Śataka (Ethics, which details principles of righteous living), Śringara Śataka (Love, which details the complexities of love and relationships), and Vairagya Śataka (Detachment, a reflection of Bharthari's renunciation). The date of composition is unknown but it is believed to have been written over the course of Bharthari's life. He uses various poetic devices including metaphors, similes, and paradoxes to convey complex ideas.