End of the 19th Dynasty

Phase 1 – Struggle between Seti II and Amenmesse

Upon Merneptah's death, both Seti II, Merneptah's eldest son, and Amenmesse claimed the throne. Amenmesse, of unknown parentage but royal lineage, was able to overthrow Seti but not completely remove him from power in Upper Egypt. This lasted until the end of the second year of Seti's reign, around 1201 BC. By the fifth year of Seti's reign, around 1198 BC, Seti seemed to have regained control of all Egypt and he died in the sixth year of his reign, around 1197 BC. Thereafter, there is no historical record of Amenmesse beyond Seti's fifth year, suggesting his probable death, as Seti later portrayed him as "the enemy" in his propaganda and murals.

Dodson suggests that Messuy may have been Amenmesse. Messuy was the Viceroy of Kush, but during Merneptah's reign the position shifted to Khaemtjitry, who then defected and became Amenmesse's viceroy. This move was significant as it aligned Amenmesse with the military strength of Kush. There has been speculation about a possible high-level purge during the transition to Seti II's rule, which may have been the catalyst for the coming conflict. Seti II's overthrow seems to have been effective in the Thebaid region, as some workers in Deir el-Medina were killed in the transfer of power, according to surviving documents. Seti's name disappears from the records of Deir el-Medina in the last month of his second year of reign.

Amenmesse's control of Egypt began about five months after Merneptah's death, starting near the second cataract but not yet reaching Abu Simbel. Initially, Amenmesse's progress was slow, with Seti II still in charge of Amada early in the second year of his reign. Thebes fell within 18 months of the start of the rebellion. Amenmesse eventually advanced to Fayyum, leaving Seti with a reduced state in the Delta. The progress is evidenced by the monuments and stelae erected in these regions, which gradually ceased under Seti, indicating his waning authority. Chancellor Bay may have played a role in Seti's restoration, although the details remain unclear. Seti II is thought to have been based at Per-Rameses, near Avaris, during his years fighting Amenmesse and after the loss of Fayyum.

Seti effectively ruled as Pharaoh for about three years after the death of Merneptah, from about 1203 to 1200 BC. He then faced a period of about two years, from the years 1199 to 1198 BC, during which he was deposed or pushed out of the centre of power. He regained power eventually and ruled peacefully for one last year in 1197 BC. Whether Seti's death was natural or the result of foul play remains unknown.

Following Seti's death, his widow Tausret assumed leadership, first through Siptah and later in her own right. Initially, Seti was married to Takhat. In the second year of his reign, around 1202 BC, he married his relative Tausret, possibly to strengthen his position through this alliance. It is believed that both Seti and Tausret were in their early twenties at this time. The period of struggle, strife, war or civil war, as described by various authors, lasted about five years. Seti's power base was originally in the north, while Amenmesse held sway in the south of Thebes, and possibly extending into Nubia.

Transition of rule

Siptah, who succeeded Seti II, was a child and too young to rule alone. Ian Shaw's book suggests that Siptah was the son of Seti II, while Toby Wilkinson's book suggests that he may have been the son of Amenmesse. Wilkinson also speculates that Siptah may have been an attempt to unite those still loyal to the late Amenmesse.

On the other hand, Callender states that Siptah's father remains unknown, but the change of his name from Rameses-Siptah to Merneptah-Siptah suggests a direct link to Merneptah. Meanwhile, Dodson suggests that Siptah was the son of Amenmesse, who in turn was the son of Seti II through a lesser known figure called Takhat.

However, all these historians agree on one point: Siptah's accession was probably due to a lack of more legitimate heirs. This period of uncertainty may have lasted from year 1 (c. 1203 BC) to year 5 (c. 1198 BC) of Seti's reign. An interregnum followed and marked the beginning of the end of the 19th Dynasty.

Phase 2 – Struggle between Tausret and Sektnakhte

Tausret shared her rule with Siptah and an official called Bay. Historical sources cited by Ian Shaw mention Bay's role in placing Tausret on the throne previously held by her father. Bay, of possible Canaanite origin, held the title of Chancellor of Egypt and was also referred to in Ugarit's diplomatic records as "Chief of the Troops of the Great King of the Land". Siptah's parentage was uncertain on his father's side, but his mother, Soteraja, was a Canaanite.

Some speculate that Bay was brought in to support Siptah's rule, as a pharaoh with a foreign mother may not have been as prestigious as one with an Egyptian mother. Artifacts from her time show Bay, Siptah and Tausret in equal stature, suggesting a power-sharing arrangement, although its nature remains unclear.

Tausret later executed Bay, possibly for conspiring against her, around 1192 BC during the fifth year of Siptah's reign. Siptah's untimely death, just as he was about to rule independently, raises suspicions, although there is no concrete evidence of Tausret's involvement.

Tausret's reign was marked by significant building projects, including her tomb in the Valley of the Kings rather than the Valley of the Queens. This choice suggests that she ruled as a pharaoh in her own right. Her architectural style was very similar to that of Ramesses II, suggesting a family connection.

Setnakhte succeeded Tausret, marking the beginning of the 20th Dynasty. A painting shows Twosret fighting an unknown enemy. Setnakhte described the years before his reign and that of Seti II as chaotic. Tausret's tomb was remodeled during the 20th Dynasty, indicating strained relations. Although unconfirmed, most Egyptologists believe that Setnakhte was a descendant, possibly a grandson or great-grandson, of the 19th Dynasty's Ramesses the Great.

Inheritance in Ancient Egypt

Joyce Tyldesley notes that in ancient Egypt, men and women of similar social status were considered equal under the law. However, men generally had the dominant role within their households, while women had the ability to own, buy, sell and inherit property, differing from practices in later medieval Europe and other regions. Despite these rights, there were still distinct gender roles in society.

When it came to inheriting the throne, while it was not unheard of for women to become pharaohs, it remained a rare occurrence, indicating a de facto preference for male succession. It is noteworthy that one of the contenders for the throne was a female pharaoh who, despite this preference for males, ruled successfully for a considerable number of years.

The throne was not automatically inherited by a pharaoh's grandchildren if the parent of that grandchild had already died before the pharaoh, unlike in medieval Europe where if a king died before his older children, his grandchildren were still eligible for the throne. This meant that Ramesses' children were disinherited from the throne when Ramesses the Great outlived some of his children, such as his son Ramesses B. Dodson thinks that Setnakhte may have been a son or grandson of one of these children of Ramesses the Great who had died before the pharaoh, and so Setnakhte felt himself to be a legitimate candidate for pharaoh.

Final fall of the dynasty

The events at the end of the 19th Dynasty are not fully documented. It is mentioned that a Canaanite named Irsu may have invaded and seized power. The subsequent records of the 20th Dynasty indicate that there was turmoil in the land and that Setnakhte eventually came to power and expelled the foreign invaders. However, it is unclear whether this transition of power was peaceful or marked by conflict. The details of the conflicts and their timings are uncertain, but it is believed that they occurred sometime after the death of Bay in 1192 BC. Setnakhte is known to have come from southern Egypt and completed his conquests in the second year of his reign, around 1187 BC.

Dodson sees Siptah's death as the catalyst for Setnakhte's rebellion and believes that Setnakhte must have been part of the ruling court prior to this rebellion, who had supported the earlier execution of Bay. Setnakhte's motivation for seizing power may have been related to Tausret's identification with her late husband after the death of Siptah in the sixth year of his reign in 1191 BC. There is some evidence that Tausret used Siptah's restoration cartouches during the early 20th Dynasty. It is also believed that the transition from Tausret's rule to Setnakhte's was direct, without a power vacuum or interregnum during which Irsu might have exercised control. Setnakhte regarded Seti II as the last legitimate pharaoh, and this transition is thought to have been violent, although the exact sequence of events remains unknown. Setnakhte died a few years after his successful seizure of power.

Toby Wilkinson believes that Setnakhte was a garrison commander who attempted a coup against Tausret. Wilkinson says that Setnakhte's son was also in the army and that the coup lasted "a few months". There is evidence that Tausret may have ruled for 2 years longer than previously thought and had a reign of 8 to 9 years. This casts doubt on the idea that she was overthrown in a few months. In the end, we cannot be sure.

As for Tausret, her fate is uncertain. There are few later mentions of her, but she did not suffer the same disgrace as Akhenaten or Amenmesse. The exact cause and date of her death are unknown.

Norbert van Cleve in a 2024 paper disputes the idea of a war between Tausret and Setnakhte, instead interpreting Setnakhte's alleged victory over Irsu the Syrian as the appropriation of Tausret's victory over Bay. Tausret may have ascended the throne earlier than previously thought due to her finds from Siptah's tomb. He also argues her reign may have been more successful than previously thought. Based on monumental building projects undertaken by Tausret, a reign length of 8 years is probably too short. Van Cleve also sees no evidence for a legitimate claim for Setnakhte to grasp power. Comparing Setnakthe's Elephantine Stele with Ramesses III's later claims of having driven out all the foreign enemies, suggests Setnakhte didn't do that, but rather pacified his enemies somehow. Van Cleve also thinks Tausret must've been a fully competent ruler.

Aftermath

By Ramesses III's death Egypt's Great Power status had come to an end and the start of a long collapse begun. His father Setnakhte and later Ramesses III played key roles in leading New Kingdom Egypt during the Bronze Age collapse. They defended against the Sea Peoples and helped Egypt recover. However, Egypt's economy suffered from the loss of trade routes to the Near East. By the time the New Kingdom ended with Ramesses XI, Egypt was very different from the time of Ramesses the Great. It is worth noting that some of Egypt's contemporaries, such as the Hittites and Mycenaean Greece, did not survive the collapse of the Bronze Age, whereas Egypt did.

Destruction in Southern Canaan

There is evidence of destruction in southern Canaan during or shortly after the reign of Tausret, as in the case of Akko. Whether Canaan played a role in the Egyptian civil wars is unknown, but as the southern Canaanite cities were vassals of Egypt during the 19th Dynasty, they were probably affected by this master-client relationship. There is further destruction from the time of Ramesses III. Eric H. Cline discusses the various causes, such as the Sea Peoples, natural disasters, warfare, famine and so on, without giving a single reason. Egypt would later lose its military garrisons and many of its Canaanite vassals as the Bronze Age collapse continued.