Ismail al-Faruqi

Philosophy and thought

Early thought: Arabism

Al-Faruqi's early intellectual focus centered on ‘urubah (Arabism), which he viewed as a unifying identity for Muslims and essential for understanding Islamic teachings due to Arabic being the language of the Qur’an. He argued that Islam and monotheism represented Arabism's key contributions to humanity and that revitalizing Arabic was necessary for restoring Islamic civilization. His conception of Arabism extended beyond nationalism, presenting it as a bridge across ethnic divides within Islam.

Central to al-Faruqi's thought was tawhid (monotheism), which he described as integral to Arab religious consciousness. He contended that the monotheistic foundations of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism underscored Arabism's global religious significance, contrasting this with ideologies that promoted division and nationalism. However, critics argued that his emphasis on Arabic as uniquely suited for Islamic thought risked marginalizing non-Arab Muslims and overlooked their historical intellectual contributions.

Over time, al-Faruqi's experiences abroad, particularly in Pakistan, led him to reconsider his Arab-centric perspective. Exposure to diverse Muslim societies broadened his understanding of Islamic unity beyond linguistic and ethnic boundaries, emphasizing a transnational Islamic civilization based on shared spiritual and ethical values. His later writings reflected this shift, advocating for a universal Islamic identity that transcended linguistic and cultural divisions.

Ethics and value theory

Al-Faruqi's philosophical inquiries included a critical analysis of Kantian ethics, particularly the concept of moral universality, which he sought to develop further within an Islamic ethical framework. In his PhD thesis, On Justifying the Good (1952), he examined the epistemological foundations of ethics and value theory, critically engaging with major Western ethical traditions. He identified two principal fallacies in their reasoning: the naturalistic fallacy and what he termed the dislocative fallacy. The naturalistic fallacy, according to al-Faruqi, involves conflating ethical value with empirical facts or human desires. In contrast, the dislocative fallacy refers to the attempt to derive a pluralistic ethic from a monistic axiology—a concept he introduced to critique systems that attempt to prescribe diverse ethical duties from a single notion of the Good without sufficient justification.

Al-Faruqi criticized utilitarian perspectives, particularly those of John Stuart Mill, for equating goodness with what is desired or produces happiness. He argued that this conflation reduces ethical value to subjective preferences, leading to ethical relativism. Drawing on the works of phenomenological thinkers such as Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann, he maintained that values are ideally self-existent, a priori, and knowable through emotional intuition rather than empirical observation. He insisted that knowledge of the good must precede moral obligation and that a coherent ethical system must begin with a sound axiology, where values are recognized as independent, absolute, and self-evident.

Al-Faruqi's dissertation provided a foundational framework for his later efforts to integrate Islamic principles into contemporary academic disciplines. His critique of Western ethical theories and his emphasis on value objectivity significantly influenced his broader concept of the Islamization of knowledge.

Shift to Islamism

Al-Faruqi's perspectives shifted significantly after relocating to the United States, where his involvement with the Muslim Students Association (MSA) at Temple University exposed him to a diverse array of Muslim students. This experience prompted him to reconsider his earlier emphasis on Arabism, moving instead toward a broader Islamic identity over Arab nationalism. Malik Badri described this transformation, noting that, "For the first time in his life, al-Faruqi met a group of young students who shattered his conceptualization of Arabism. He had to submit to Islam as the ummah's real binding force – especially since Arabs are only a small minority within it." Al-Faruqi himself articulated this shift by stating, "Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine". He further remarked, "I asked myself: Who am I? A Palestinian, a philosopher, a liberal humanist? My answer was: I am a Muslim".

In his later years, al-Faruqi emphasized the significance of Islamic law as a framework for shaping ethical and societal norms. He described legal measures, such as penalties for theft and adultery, as deterrents designed to foster discipline and prevent societal harm. Al-Faruqi viewed these laws as part of a larger effort, centered on education, to instill ethical behavior and cultivate a just society.

In his exploration of Islam's role in North America, al-Faruqi also highlighted the historical contributions and challenges of African Muslims, from early settlement to the influences of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X on the Islamic movement among African Americans. His insights on the ethical foundations of Islam, the concept of the Ummah, and the responsibilities of Muslim immigrants have played a role in shaping the Muslim experience in North America.

This shift also influenced his approach to interfaith dialogue. Al-Faruqi believed that a unified Islamic identity was essential for fostering meaningful interactions with non-Muslim communities. His involvement in the MSA and his exposure to diverse Muslim backgrounds in the U.S. reinforced his commitment to a broader, inclusive Islamic identity over his earlier Arab-centric views.

Views on Tawhid

Al-Faruqi's views on tawhid included a critical perspective on Sufism, which he considered to emphasize mysticism and esoteric practices. He critiqued Sufism for its mysticism, arguing that it often detracted from the rational and practical aspects of Islam. Al-Faruqi was inspired by Mu'tazilī theologians such as al-Nazzam and Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, who advocated for the use of reason and logic in understanding Islamic principles. Additionally, he found value in the works of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ), whose writings combined Islamic teachings with elements of Greek philosophy.

Al-Faruqi's emphasis on tawhid went beyond theology, encompassing an integrated approach that unified rational thought, ethics, and social responsibility across all aspects of life. He argued that tawhid is "that which gives Islamic civilization its identity, which binds all its constituents together and thus makes of them an integral, organic body". Al-Faruqi explains:

To acknowledge that there is no god but Allah (SWT) is to recognize Him as sole Creator, Lord and Judge of the world. It follows from this witnessing that man was created for a purpose, since God does not work in vain; and that this purpose is the realization of the divine will as it pertains to this world in which human life finds its theater.

He also asserted that this principle "purges religion clean of all doubt regarding the transcendence and unicity of the Godhead." He emphasized that tawhid entails both the unicity and transcendence of the divine, affirming that if God alone is truly divine and all other beings—angels, spirits, and humans—are His creatures, then there is no threat to His ultimate authority. Only a God who is utterly beyond creation can fulfill the idea of ultimacy; without such transcendence, that claim collapses.

This approach extended to his vision of secularism and materialism, which he viewed as challenges to Islamic unity and ethical integrity. Al-Faruqi argued that Islam's vision for society requires an integrated worldview where tawhid "marks a complete secularization of the natural world to allow for the development of the sciences," thus separating the sacred from nature while upholding a unified ethical framework. His response to Western secular ideologies was rooted in a belief that tawhid calls for a holistic framework where reason and faith work together, as opposed to the spiritual-material divide seen in secular ideologies.

Meta-religion

Al-Faruqi sought to establish principles of meta-religion grounded in reason, aiming to evaluate religions by universal standards rather than by comparing them against each other. This approach was intended to find common ground for cooperation among diverse faiths. Central to his concept of meta-religion is a shared, intrinsic belief in the One God, which he argued represents the original "pure form of faith" predating the diversification of religions. As al-Faruqi envisioned, meta-religion is distinct from historical religion, focusing on universal principles rooted in fitrah (natural religion) as a basis for mutual understanding and interfaith cooperation.

Within this framework, din al-fitrah is an innate human disposition toward the divine, suggesting that meta-religion provides an internalized recognition of truth that transcends specific religious labels. This perspective supports a form of interfaith understanding that acknowledges shared spiritual foundations without equating the doctrinal specifics of each faith. Rather than affirming religious pluralism in its conventional sense, meta-religion upholds that religions mirror varying degrees of the original monotheistic truth inherent in human nature.

To facilitate dialogue, al-Faruqi proposed several guiding principles: all dialogue should be open to critique, communication must adhere to laws of internal and external coherence, dialogue should align with reality and remain free from "canonical figurizations," and discussions should emphasize ethical questions over theological disputes. Al-Faruqi's concept of meta-religion involves a belief in God or Ultimate Reality as the "totally other." He emphasized that Islam, as a universal meta-religion preached by all prophets, centers on the concept of tawhid, which encompasses both the oneness and transcendence of God and humanity's duty to reflect divine harmony within the world.

Al-Faruqi also asserted that the study of religion should focus less on validating its truth through external or functional measures and more on understanding the condition of the homo religiosus—the naturally religious human being with an inherent awareness of the divine.

For al-Faruqi, meta-religious dialogue served as a vehicle for fostering mutual understanding and respect among faith communities, bridging the gaps created by doctrinal differences. His emphasis on ethics over theology was intended to support more constructive and less contentious interfaith engagements.

Comparative religion

Al-Faruqi's work in comparative religion aimed to create a framework for respectful engagement among diverse faith traditions. He explored philosophical contrasts and convergences between Islam and Christianity, especially regarding interpretations of Hebrew scripture. He emphasized that during the peak of Islamic civilization, interreligious dialogue was a public pastime and a common topic in intellectual circles, showcasing its historical precedence. His approach examined differing hermeneutical methods and theological frameworks, identifying shared values that could support interfaith dialogue while respecting doctrinal distinctions. He believed in the value of dialogue initiated based on mutual respect and ethical considerations, stating that "conversion to the truth is the aim of dialogue," reflecting his commitment to honest interfaith engagement.

Al-Faruqi argued that, unlike Islam, Christianity lacks explicit foundations for structuring social frameworks such as law and economics, which he viewed as essential to societal cohesion:

The lack of foundation in the Christianist dogma for a sound societism perturbed the Christian mind very strongly during the last one hundred years. The growth of urban centers, of industry, of the means of communication, brought about a realization of the need for a new kind of social cohesion... But the Church, being the loyal guardian of that legacy, could answer him only in paradoxes which availed nothing... It was not that the Church could have helped but refrained—it really did its acrobatic best—but that there was no way to obvert the fact that Jesus’ message was not a societist one.

He further observed what he viewed as a fundamental internal conflict in Western ethics stemming from this dualistic legacy, stating:

Ever since he became a Christian, Western man has lived a split life and suffered from a split personality. Jesus and his ethical renunciation on the one hand, and nature with its self-assertion, nature-affirmation and ‘worldliness’ on the other, divided his loyalty and being. Although he conducted his life oblivious to Jesus’ emphasis on the spiritual over and against the material, yet he invoked Jesus’ blessing for every move.

In addition to his exploration of Christian theology, al-Faruqi engaged with contemporary Western philosophy, examining ethics through thinkers like Kant, Scheler, and Hartmann. His comparative studies also extended into ethical and metaphysical questions, where he highlighted differing value systems between Western and Islamic thought.

In examining religious traditions historically, al-Faruqi saw potential for interfaith dialogue that acknowledges shared principles alongside distinctive beliefs. Al-Faruqi argued that Western ethics often emphasize individualism, whereas Islamic ethics prioritize communal welfare and divine accountability. These contrasting frameworks, he suggested, shape each tradition's broader views on morality, existence, and purpose.

However, some critics, such as Damian Howard, argued that al-Faruqi's approach to interfaith engagement placed greater emphasis on Islamic perspectives than on fostering reciprocal understanding among faiths. They suggested that this emphasis may have limited the depth and inclusiveness of his dialogue model. Nevertheless, his contributions to comparative religion remain significant, providing a model for respectful dialogue that emphasizes both ethical integrity and intellectual rigor.

Islamization of knowledge

Al-Faruqi was instrumental in conceptualizing holistic knowledge, a framework that integrates Islamic principles with modern disciplines, an approach often described as neo-modernist. Concerned about the secularization of knowledge in Muslim societies, al-Faruqi advocated for a holistic epistemology, reinterpreting Islamic thought to address contemporary challenges. He described what he called "the malaise of the ummah," arguing that reliance on Western tools and methodologies led to a disconnection from ecological and social realities in Muslim nations, often overlooking essential Islamic ethics. Al-Faruqi emphasized the integration of Islamic values within modern knowledge systems to help preserve the ethical fabric of the Muslim community.

The later part of al-Faruqi's career concentrated on the Islamization of knowledge concept. Responding to what he saw as the secularization and Western dominance of Muslim educational systems, he envisioned an integration of Islamic values with contemporary scientific and academic disciplines, ultimately striving for an epistemology rooted in ethical integrity. This concept included economic principles such as zakat and prohibitions on usury to ensure that economic activity aligned with Islamic ethics. His ideas eventually led to the founding of IIIT, which aimed to create an Islamic epistemology and methodology applicable across disciplines.

Al-Faruqi's methodology also extended to social sciences, where he advocated frameworks that retained Islamic ethical considerations while critiquing Western secularism. His goal was to replace secular principles with a foundation built on Islamic ethics that aligned with the values of the ummah. He envisioned a unified Islamic curriculum that incorporated contemporary disciplines while firmly grounding them in Islamic thought. This approach sought to produce scholars capable of addressing modern challenges from an Islamic perspective, stressing both curriculum development and practical strategies for reforming educational systems.

Some scholars, such as Ibrahim Kalin, have critiqued al-Faruqi's focus on humanities, arguing it left the natural sciences largely unexamined. Kalin describes al-Faruqi's work as an example of how "the idea of method or methodology (manhaj and manhajiyyah)... can obscure deeper philosophical issues involved in the current discussions of science." Despite Al-Faruqi's goal to Islamize Western knowledge, Kalin asserts, his focus "was exclusively on the humanities, leaving scientific knowledge virtually untouched." This omission, Kalin argues, led to unintended consequences: "First, Faruqi's work on Islamization provided his followers with a framework in which knowledge (ilm) came to be equated with social disciplines, thus ending up in a kind of sociologism... Second, the exclusion of modern scientific knowledge from the scope of Islamization has led to negligent attitudes... toward the secularizing effect of the modern scientific worldview."

Kalin's critique suggests that al-Faruqi's limited engagement with scientific knowledge risks creating a framework overly centered on sociological interpretations of Islamic knowledge. By omitting the natural sciences, Kalin argues, al-Faruqi's approach inadvertently reinforces a secular divide between natural and human sciences that may leave modern Muslim intellectuals unequipped to address the philosophical and epistemological challenges posed by contemporary science.

Islamic civilization and culture

Al-Faruqi viewed Islamic civilization as a comprehensive and integrated system of values, rooted in the principle of tawhid. He argued that unlike cultural relativism—which treats each culture as an autonomous entity without universal criteria for evaluation—Islamic civilization is grounded in absolute, divinely revealed values that are universally valid for all humanity. This universality distinguishes Islamic civilization from relativist perspectives, which deny any culture the ability to claim universal truth.

According to al-Faruqi, Islamic art is a primary expression of this unified worldview. Despite geographical and historical variations, Islamic art is characterized by its preference for stylization, abstraction, and the avoidance of naturalism. These aesthetic choices are rooted in the Islamic understanding of divine transcendence, which prohibits the depiction of God or living beings in a naturalistic form. Instead, Islamic art employs geometric patterns, arabesques, and Arabic calligraphy to symbolize the infinite and the divine. Al-Faruqi emphasized that this artistic unity is not merely a matter of style but is directly connected to the Islamic worldview. The calligraphic art of the Qur'an, where the divine word is transformed into a visual form, exemplifies this connection, maintaining the sacred nature of the text while expressing it artistically.

In his analysis of Islamic architecture, al-Faruqi highlighted that it is an extension of the Islamic concept of space, wherein the sacred is prioritized over the profane. The mosque, with its open, uncluttered space oriented towards the qiblah (direction of Makkah), serves as the archetype of Islamic architecture. Its simplicity and functionality reflect the unity of spiritual and material aspects of life.

Al-Faruqi rejected cultural relativism, asserting that Islamic civilization is not just one among many but a universal civilization providing a coherent, value-based framework for all aspects of life. He argued that Islamic civilization is distinguished by its capacity to integrate diverse cultures under the unifying principles of tawhid. This synthesis is evident in how Islamic civilization historically absorbed and transformed local customs, languages, and arts, creating a diverse but unified cultural heritage. This cultural synthesis, al-Faruqi maintained, was feasible because Islamic civilization is governed by a clear hierarchy of values rooted in divine revelation. At the core of this hierarchy is the concept of tawhid, ensuring the unity of all aspects of life—spiritual, ethical, social, and intellectual.

For al-Faruqi, Arabic is not merely the liturgical language of Islam but an essential component of Islamic civilization. He argued that the Qur’an's linguistic form is inseparable from its divine content, rendering Arabic a vehicle of both religious and cultural unity. This is most clearly observed in the widespread use of Arabic calligraphy in Islamic art, where aesthetic and spiritual dimensions are intertwined. Arabic calligraphy, with its varied styles—Kufic, Naskh, Thuluth, and others—became a unifying element of Islamic art across diverse regions, symbolizing the shared spiritual and cultural heritage of the Islamic world.

Critique of Zionism

Al-Faruqi was a vocal critic of Zionism, viewing it as incompatible with Judaism due to its nationalist ideology. He argued that Zionism was fundamentally unjust, as it sought to displace Palestine's indigenous population and seize their land, resources, and homes. He characterized it as "naked robbery by force of arms," accompanied by indiscriminate violence against civilians:

Its plan was to empty Palestine of its native inhabitants and to occupy their lands, farms, homes, and all movable properties. Zionism was guilty of naked robbery by force of arms; of wanton, indiscriminate slaughter of men, women, and children; of destruction of men's lives and properties.

Consequently, he maintained that Zionism's dismantling was necessary to restore justice.

Al-Faruqi envisioned an alternative path for Israeli Jews who renounced Zionism, suggesting they could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, where they could preserve their faith under Jewish law as interpreted by rabbinic courts supported within an Islamic framework. This perspective highlighted his belief that Islamic governance could accommodate diverse communities without imposing on their religious practices:

[Islam] requires the Jews to set up their own rabbinic courts and put its whole executive power at its disposal. The shari'ah, the law of Islam, demands of all Jews to submit themselves to the precepts of Jewish law as interpreted by the rabbinic courts, and treats defiance or contempt of the rabbinic court as rebellion against the Islamic state itself, on a par with like action on the part of a Muslim vis-à-vis the Islamic court.

Reflecting on Zionism's impact, al-Faruqi argued that rather than providing security for Jews, it had created a precarious existence in Israel, where life became defined by conflict and reliance on foreign powers:

Zionism has not only contributed to this sad state of affairs. It is directly responsible for it. How, then, can it be said that it had succeeded in providing security for the Jew? Even in the very heartland of Zionism, in Israel, the Jew sits in the midst of an armory, surrounding himself with barbed wire, minefields, and all kinds of weaponry to prevent an onslaught which he knows for certain is coming, sooner or later. His very existence is a regimented spartanism, due in greatest measure to the bounty of international imperialism and colonialism. Thus, Israel, the so-called greatest achievement of Zionism, is really its greatest failure. For the very being of the Zionist state rests, in final analysis, on the passing whim of international politics.

Al-Faruqi's critique of Zionism was rooted in his commitment to justice as defined within an Islamic worldview.

Legacy and impact

Scholarly achievements

Al-Faruqi contributed to Islamic studies through his extensive writings and active involvement in academic and interfaith organizations. He authored over 100 articles in scholarly journals and magazines and published 25 influential books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1968), Islam and the Problem of Israel (1980), and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life (1982). These works addressed a wide range of topics, including ethics, theology, interfaith dialogue, and the integration of Islamic thought into contemporary academic disciplines.

Described as the "Martin Luther of Islam," al-Faruqi's approach to reforming Islamic intellectualism emphasized tawhid as a unifying framework for addressing ethical, political, and aesthetic questions. This foundational principle informed his work harmonizing Islamic principles with modern academic disciplines. He distinguished iman (conviction) from the Christian concept of "faith," arguing that iman is rooted in knowledge and certainty rather than subjective belief.

Al-Faruqi was among the first Muslim academics to engage with phenomenology and the history of religions as methods for understanding religious experience. He argued that these approaches allowed for a greater appreciation of Islam as part of human religious history while enabling Muslims to participate in the modern study of religion. His work helped bridge the gap between traditional Islamic thought and contemporary academic methods.

In 1973, al-Faruqi established the Islamic Studies Group in the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and chaired it for ten years. This initiative provided a formal platform for Muslim scholars to engage in dialogue with scholars from other religious traditions, particularly in comparative religion and interfaith studies. Besides his academic work, al-Faruqi held leadership positions such as vice president of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium and president of the American Islamic College in Chicago.

In March 1977, al-Faruqi played a significant role in the First World Conference on Muslim Education in Makkah. This conference included participants such as Mohd Kamal Hassan, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, and Syed Ali Ashraf, among others. The conference laid the groundwork for establishing Islamic universities in Dhaka, Islamabad, Kuala Lumpur, Kampala, and Niger. Al-Faruqi was instrumental in the conference's deliberations and the development of its action plans.

He also served as an adviser to political leaders in the Muslim world, including Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan and Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia. During Zia-ul-Haq's administration, al-Faruqi contributed to the establishment of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which aimed to integrate Islamic values with contemporary academic disciplines. In Malaysia, al-Faruqi advised Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, assisting in the foundation of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983. Both institutions were established to combine religious and secular knowledge within a holistic educational framework.

In 1980, Ismail al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) with Taha Jabir Alalwani, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, and Anwar Ibrahim. His involvement in interfaith dialogue promoted mutual understanding and cooperation among religious communities, fostering a global environment of peace and respect that highlighted the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.

Contemporary relevance

Al-Faruqi's ideas on the Islamization of knowledge remain influential in contemporary Islamic thought. His work has guided the development of academic curricula at institutions like the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) and the International Islamic University, Islamabad, where religious studies are integrated with modern disciplines to harmonize faith and reason. His contributions continue to shape scholarly discourse in Islamic thought and education, with his works being frequently referenced in academic conferences and publications.

His approach to interfaith dialogue focused on identifying ethical and moral commonalities among major faiths, particularly Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Scholars have recognized his emphasis on shared values as a significant contribution to fostering mutual understanding and respect across religious communities. His framework has informed broader efforts to promote peace and cooperation globally.

Al-Faruqi's contributions also extended into practical applications. His methodologies influenced the establishment of programs, such as mandatory religious studies courses at IIUM, designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of spiritual traditions and their civilizational impact. His scholarly works, including Christian Ethics and Trialogue of Abrahamic Faiths, remain key resources in interfaith dialogue and comparative religion studies. These works continue to influence academic discussions in both Islamic and Western contexts.

His contributions have been recognized posthumously, particularly in communities like Montreal, where his scholarship and community-building efforts left a lasting impact.