Law of Moses

Law in the Ancient Near East

The "Law of Moses" in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions were seen as offences against God rather than solely as offences against society (civil law). This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2100–2050 BCE), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BCE, of which almost half concerns contract law).

However, the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented, for example, in principles such as lex talionis ("eye for an eye"), and in the content of the provisions. Some similarities are striking, such as in the provisions concerning a man-goring ox (Code of Hammurabi laws 250–252, Exodus 21:28–32). Some writers have posited direct influence: David P. Wright, for example, asserts that the Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout dependent upon the Laws of Hammurabi", "a creative rewriting of Mesopotamian sources to be viewed as an academic abstraction rather than a digest of laws". Others posit indirect influence, such as via Aramaic or Phoenician intermediaries. There is consensus that the similarities are a result of inheriting common oral traditions. Another example, the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor. An important distinction, however, is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel, before the monarchic period beginning with David, was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy, although God is most commonly portrayed like a king.

Hebrew Bible

Moses and authorship of the Law

According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses led the early Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, and thereafter God established the Mosaic covenant with the Israelites and their descendants. Based on historical records and archaeological evidence, most scholars agree the Biblical account (which was written centuries later than its narrative setting) has some historical basis, although there is little of historical fact in it. Traditionally the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to Moses, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and/or his officials), and the Levites became the guardians and interpreters of the law.

The Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 31:24–26) depicts Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD". Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 24:4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD, and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel; Exodus 34:27, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with Israel; and Leviticus 26:46 "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the LORD established on Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses." According to the biblical narrative, the Book of the Covenant, recording all the commands of the LORD, was written by Moses in the desert and read to the people, and to seal the covenant, the blood of sacrificial oxen was then sprinkled, half on an altar and half on the people.

Later references to the Law in the Hebrew Bible

The Book of Kings relates how a "law of Moses" was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah (r. 641–609 BCE).

Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses" is found in Joshua 8:30–31.

Content

The legal material of the Pentateuch is distributed primarily throughout Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Biblical scholars commonly identify several major collections of law within these books, including the Decalogue, the Covenant Code, Priestly legislation, the Holiness Code, and the Deuteronomic Code. These collections contain both overlapping and distinctive laws, and their literary and historical relationships are a subject of scholarly study.

The Covenant Code, found principally in Exodus 20:22–23:33, includes laws concerning worship as well as civil and social matters such as slavery, personal injury, property, restitution, and the treatment of socially vulnerable people. Biblical law frequently presents such requirements within the framework of the covenant between God and Israel.

Priestly legislation, found particularly in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, includes laws concerning sacrifices, the priesthood, ritual purity, sacred space, and festivals. Within this material, the Holiness Code, conventionally identified with Leviticus 17–26, combines ritual, ethical, and social requirements and repeatedly calls upon the Israelites to be holy.

The Deuteronomic Code, generally identified with Deuteronomy 12–26, contains laws concerning worship, religious festivals, judicial and political institutions, family and social relations, warfare, and other aspects of Israelite life. Deuteronomy presents these laws within a broader covenantal and exhortatory framework and frequently reworks or reinterprets legal material found elsewhere in the Pentateuch.

In Judaism

In Judaism, the Law of Moses is identified with the Torah, particularly the commandments contained in the five books traditionally associated with Moses. Rabbinic tradition enumerates 613 commandments (mitzvot) in the Torah, although the applicability of individual commandments varies according to their subject and circumstances. Some commandments apply specifically to particular groups or depend upon institutions and conditions described in the Torah, such as the Temple in Jerusalem, the priesthood, or agricultural life in the Land of Israel.

In rabbinic tradition, non-Jews are not generally regarded as obligated to observe the full body of commandments given to Israel. Instead, the Noahide laws are understood as commandments applicable to humanity generally.

Second Temple Judaism

During the Second Temple period, the Torah became increasingly central to Jewish religious life and identity. Alongside the Jerusalem Temple, the Torah constituted one of the principal institutions shared by Jewish communities in Judea and the diaspora. During this period, the biblical text developed toward forms resembling those preserved in later Jewish tradition, while the Torah acquired increasing religious authority.

Interpretation of the Law of Moses during this period was diverse. Jewish writings from the Persian, Hellenistic, and early Roman periods interpreted and applied the Pentateuch in different social and religious settings. The Dead Sea Scrolls, for example, preserve evidence of communities that regarded the Torah of Moses as authoritative while developing distinctive interpretations of its requirements. At Qumran, the expression "Torah of Moses" referred to the Pentateuch, although other writings and community rules could also possess religious authority.

In Christianity

New Testament

The New Testament frequently discusses the Law of Moses, particularly in the Pauline epistles and several of the Gospels. The Greek term nomos ("law") occurs nearly 200 times in the New Testament and usually refers to the Mosaic law or Torah. The New Testament writings differ in their treatment and application of the law, and the relationship between the law and the work of Jesus subsequently became an important issue in Christian theology and ethics.

In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus states that he came not to abolish the Law or the Prophets but to fulfill them (Matthew 5:17). The meaning of "fulfill" and its implications for the continuing applicability of Mosaic law have been interpreted in different ways. David Wilber argues that "fulfill" in this context means to carry out or reveal the law's true meaning rather than to bring it to an end, and consequently interprets the passage as affirming the continuing validity of the Law of Moses. By contrast, Andy Stanley interprets fulfillment as bringing the Mosaic law to an end, writing that Jesus "fulfilled—as in ended—the necessity of the Jewish law."

The applicability of the Law of Moses to Gentile converts was an important issue in early Christianity. According to the Acts of the Apostles, the Council of Jerusalem considered whether Gentile converts should be required to be circumcised and to observe the Law of Moses. The resulting Apostolic Decree imposed several commandments from the Law of Moses on Gentile believers without requiring circumcision.

The law is also a major subject in the letters of Paul, who discusses it in relation to sin, faith, justification, and the inclusion of Gentiles among the people of God. Paul uses the expression "law of Christ" in Galatians 6:2 and related language in 1 Corinthians 9:21. The relationship between this expression and the Law of Moses has been interpreted in different ways. Wilber argues that the "law of Christ" should be understood as the Law of Moses as interpreted and exemplified by Christ, rather than as a new law replacing it. The precise relationship between Paul's theology and the Law of Moses remains a major subject of scholarly debate.

Later Christian interpretations

Christian traditions have developed differing accounts of the continuing authority and applicability of the Law of Moses. Some theological traditions distinguish among moral, ceremonial, and judicial or civil precepts, maintaining the continuing authority of some while regarding others as fulfilled or no longer binding under the New Covenant. Other Christian interpretations understand the relationship between the Mosaic law and Christian practice differently. The continuing applicability of Mosaic commandments therefore remains a subject of disagreement within Christian theology.

Rabbinic Judaism

In Rabbinic Judaism, the written Law of Moses is understood in conjunction with the Oral Torah, a body of interpretation and tradition concerning the meaning and application of the written Torah. Rabbinic tradition holds that both the Written Torah and Oral Torah ultimately derive from the revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai. The distinction between Written and Oral Torah became a fundamental feature of rabbinic theology and its understanding of religious authority.

Rabbinic interpretation and application of the Torah developed into halakha, the body of Jewish law governing religious practice and other areas of life. Early rabbinic legal traditions were preserved particularly in the Mishnah and Tosefta, while subsequent rabbinic discussion of the Mishnah forms the Gemara; the Mishnah and Gemara together constitute the Talmud. Rabbinic literature presents these legal and interpretive traditions as rooted in oral transmission, although modern scholarship distinguishes the historical development of rabbinic traditions from traditional accounts of their transmission from Sinai.

In Islam

In Islam, Moses (Mūsā) is regarded as a prophet and messenger of God, and the Torah (Tawrāt) is regarded as a divine revelation. The Tawrāt is mentioned by name eighteen times in the Quran. The Quran describes it as containing "guidance and light" and presents it as a revelation by which the prophets, rabbis, and religious scholars of the Israelites rendered judgment.

The Quran presents its own revelation in continuity with earlier revelations while also establishing distinct requirements for the Quranic community. Some Quranic laws parallel or engage with laws found in the Hebrew Bible, including regulations concerning diet, sexual relations, fasting, and retaliation for injury. Scholars have interpreted these parallels as evidence of the Quran's engagement with earlier Jewish and Christian legal traditions, although the nature and means of that relationship remain subjects of study.

Islamic interpretations have differed concerning the relationship between the Tawrāt revealed to Moses and the Torah as transmitted by later Jewish communities. The Quran affirms the divine origin of the Torah but also contains passages accusing some among the People of the Book of concealing, misinterpreting, or altering revelation. These passages contributed to later Muslim discussions of taḥrīf, or corruption of earlier scripture, whose nature and extent were interpreted in different ways by Muslim scholars.