Saint Christopher

Broadly, two hagiographic traditions developed mainly distinguished by the level in which they emphasize or downplay the wild animal, monster-like nature of the saint: the older Eastern tradition describes the pre-conversion Christopher as having a ferocious nature and animal features (in particular, the head of a dog) while the younger Western tradition does not dwell as much on these animal-like mental and physical features but rather emphasizes the lack of culture, the giant size and the ugliness of the saint.

Both traditions hold that Christopher was not the initial name of the saint but that this name was only adopted by, or given to, the saint following his conversion to Christianity. The name Christopher used in the English-speaking world is the English version of the Greek name Χριστόφορος (Christóphoros or Christóforos). It is formed from the word elements Χριστός (Christós, 'Christ'), and φέρειν (phérein, 'to bear'), together signifying, "Christ bearer". As the saint's legend spread to many regions, native forms of the Greek name developed both to refer to the saint and as a personal name.

It has been speculated that the medieval artistic representations showing Saint Christopher physically carrying the infant Jesus led to the development of the best-known legend about the saint today. This legend makes its debut only in the 13th-century compendium of hagiographies known as the Legenda aurea (Golden Legend). The Golden Legend recounts that after converting to Christianity, St. Christopher devotes his life to carrying travelers across a river. One day he is asked to carry a young boy across a river. During the crossing the boy becomes increasingly heavy to the point that even the able-bodied Christopher is struggling to continue the journey, even more so since the water level of the river has also started to rise. After reaching the river shore, the boy reveals himself to be Jesus.

As some legendary stories recount that the saint devoted himself to helping travelers, various Christian denominations made him the patron saint of travelers. Small images of him are often worn around the neck, on a bracelet, carried in a pocket or placed in a vehicle in the belief they offer protection from adversity when traveling. In the iconography of Western Christianity, the saint is often depicted as a giant with a staff crossing a river with the infant Jesus on his shoulder. In Byzantine art, the saint is depicted in various guises including as a young man, a martyr in a red himation with a cross in his hand, a warrior on horseback or a man with the head of a dog in line with the early legendary tradition. Some modern scholarship has investigated the contempary understanding and the role and purpose in the legendary accounts of the 'otherness' and dual nature of the saint who is described as a giant with frightening features (in some accounts with a dog's head) but is at the same time human.

Legend

Earliest evidence of a cult of St. Christopher

There is no evidence for the historicity of the saint. The cult of Saint Christopher was probably established in Asia Minor in the 5th century. A stone inscription was found in the ruins of a church close to Chalcedon, an ancient city near present-day Istanbul. The inscription states that a martyrium dedicated to a blessed Christopher was constructed from May 450 to 22 September 452, the date of its consecration. It also mentions the names of the state ministers of the Byzantine Empire and those church ministers who were involved in the church's construction and the consecration but provides no information on the person to whom the martyrium was dedicated other than the honorific and name blessed Christopher. The inscription attests to the veneration of a Saint Christopher in Asia Minor in the mid-5th century.

Sources of the earliest legendary accounts

The Christopher legend seems to have its roots in the Coptic Acts of Bartholomew, a partially preserved document going back to 4th- or 5th-century Egypt which has been partially reconstructed from later translations and elaborations such as the Acts of Andrew and Bartholomew. The Acts recount the miraculous missionary activities of Saint Bartholomew who is accompanied by Saint Andrew and two other disciples (referred to together as the apostles). According to the Acts, the apostles are sent by Jesus to convert the Parthians. In Parthia they meet Gallinos, the governor. To prove the power of their God, the apostles perform miracles showing that their God has absolute power over the city's idols. In response, the devils dwelling in the city idols demand that the apostles be burned with fire. The apostles are held and tortured in many imaginative ways. They die, their bodies are cut up and burnt. The ashes are thrown in the sea where they are swallowed by a whale. Nevertheless, the apostles are resurrected. Gallinos then offers the apostles money to leave the city. When they refuse, the city's people drive them out. The apostles then travel in the direction of the city of the cannibals. A dog-headed individual of four cubits tall (i.e. between 178 centimetres (70 in) and 209 centimetres (82 in) depending on which cubit standard is used) leaves the city of the cannibals to look for a human to eat but does not find food all day. An angel appears to him who baptizes him. As a result he loses his animal nature and acquires the ability to speak as a human. He is tasked by the angel to assist Saints Bartholomew and Andrew in converting the city of the cannibals. When he meets the saints and their two disciples they are initially afraid of him but he assuages their fears by telling them that their God has sent him to assist them in their mission. He tells them his name is 'Bewitched' (or the 'Damned', in the Arabic and Ethiopian versions he tells them his name is 'Bewitched' or 'Abominable'). The apostles say that from now on he will be called Christian (Christianus or Christomaios). They all set course to Parthia. Warned by satan, Gallinos closes the city gates when he hears of their approach. After Andrew has called on the Christian God to break down the gates, they enter the city. While under attack by the citizens and wild animals, Christomaios pleads with Andrew to obtain divine intervention so that he can reclaim his animal nature. Once he has become animal-like again he tears apart and eats the animals while many of the citizens die in the chaos. Andrew calms Christomaios and calls on their God to send a fire to encircle the city. The governor and the leaders of the city plead for deliverance and make a declaration of faith in Jesus. The fire is extinguished and the apostles subsequently succeed in converting the city's people. At Christomaios's request, the dead people are resurrected.

The Acts of Bartholomew contain many of the themes that recur in the early Christopher legends, in particular that of the indestructibility of saints (in this case the apostles) who are able to survive almost all kinds of extreme torture or resurrect after having been murdered until they finally decide to give up their life in the ultimate martyrdom. Another story line also found in the Christopher legends is that of the pagan opponent first attempting to cajole the Christian converts to return to the pagan religion through kindness but when confronted with the intransigence of the saints or converts, then resorting to various forms of extreme torture. The direct intervention in the story of angels and devils, the mocking of pagan idols and the performance of miracles are also a staple of the Christopher legends.

The legendary accounts

Legends about the life and death of St, Christopher first appeared in Greece in the 5th or 6th century and spread very early throughout Egypt, Syria and Palestine before spreading to the West by the 9th century. The oldest preserved written versions were penned in Greek (one of which is known as BHG 309-310c, possibly 5th century or later) and Latin (one of which is known as BHL 1764, 8th century).

The Western development of the legend begins with the German writer and later bishop Walter of Speyer who wrote two versions of the legend in Latin, one in verse and the other in prose which were first completed in 986 under the title Vita Sancti Christophori versibus et prosa oratione composita ('Life of the holy Christopher in verse and prose').

The legendary account that was to become the most influential in Europe is recounted in the 13th-century Latin Legenda aurea (Golden Legend). Many vernacular versions of the Christopher legends were written during the Middle Ages. The various legends regarding the saint and the translations and elaborations differ and contradict each other in many ways.

Greek Martyrdom of Christophoros

One of the oldest preserved written versions in Greek of the Christopher legend is the Martyrdom of Christophoros (referred to as BHG 309–310c). It starts with the issuing, in the fourth year of emperor Decius, of a decree requiring everyone to participate in pagan sacrificial rituals. A certain Reprebos is captured by the Romans in battle and then forced to join the Roman numerus Marmaritarum, i.e. a military unit made up by Marmaritae people. Reprebos is a physically repulsive Cynocephalus (i.e. a man with a dog's head) from a tribe of cannibals who is incapable of speaking "our language". After praying to his God he is granted the gift of language. He goes to a city to confront those who persecute the Christians and is struck by one of the persecutors. Reprebus does not retaliate. The person who struck him sends a report on the fearfully looking Reprebos to the emperor. The emperor sends 200 soldiers to capture or kill Reprebos. While sitting down to pray in front of a church, a miracle occurs as the staff of Reprebos blossoms with new growth. This strengthens his resolve. Found by the soldiers, Reprebos refuses their offer to falsely report they did not find him and thus delay his arrest. On the way to the city, the soldiers complain about their poor rations. Reprebos miraculously produces five loaves of bread with the help of the angel Raphael. The soldiers at once want to become Christians and are baptised together with Reprebos by the bishop Babylas in Antioch in Syria. Reprebos takes his new name Christophoros.

They travel on to Perga where Christophoros gets an audience with emperor Decius who is intimidated by his appearance. He refuses to yield to the emperor's pleas that he sacrifice to the pagan Gods. He is then severely tortured. The emperor attempts to lure him into making sacrifices to the pagan idols by sending him prostitutes called Aquilina and Kallinike who have been attractively made up. Christophoros prays to God for strength and manages to convert the women. When the women are summoned to the emperor they choose cruel martyrdom over renunciation of their newly adopted faith. Aquilina is murdered by being hung by her hair with two stones tied to her feet. Kallinike first pretends that she agrees to sacrifice to the Greek Gods but then turns around and insults the effigies of these Gods and casts them down. She is executed by being impaled horizontally on a spit with stones hung from her hands and feet. The following day, the emperor again attempts to win over Christophoros, who remains steadfast in his faith. The 200 soldiers who had earlier converted declare to the emperor that they have become Christians and followers of Christophoros. After unsuccessfully trying to cajole them back to their pagan beliefs, Decius orders that they be executed immediately and their bodies be burned. Christophoros is then again tortured and burned alive on a pyre, yet he remains unharmed. One thousand people immediately convert to Christianity. They save him from the flames and taunt the emperor who flees.

The emperor gets a visit from the devil disguised as a human who incites him against Christophoros. The next day the emperor orders everyone to sacrifice to the pagan Gods. When Christopher and his band of converts resist the order, the crowd is subsequently massacred. Christopher is thrown down a well with a heavy stone around his neck but the stone is crushed and the saint lifted out of the well by angels. The emperor orders a bronze cape to be heated up and put on him, but the saint remains unharmed again. The emperor finally orders his beheading. While being led to the place of execution, Christophoros asks the soldier taking him there for a moment to pray. The aspiring martyr asks Jesus to cause the evil emperor to die in demonic torment eating his own flesh. He also prays for his bodily relics to be given the power to drive away demons and prevent agricultural scourges such as hail, acts of god, bad grape harvests and droughts. A voice from the heavens replies, granting the requests. Christophoros then convinces the soldier to behead him. The soldier agrees reluctantly and immediately commits suicide after the execution. The bishop of Attaleia pays a hefty sum to retrieve Christophoros's body, which becomes a source of miracles. Emperor Decius becomes afflicted by a terrible disease which dissolves his body. In summary, the brief ministry of the martyr has resulted not only in his own death but also the demise of 201 soldiers, two prostitutes and at least 1,000 converted citizens as well as the serious illness of the emperor.

The Golden Legend

According to the legendary account of his life in the Golden Legend, Christopher is of Canaanite lineage. He is initially called Reprobus. He is 12 cubits tall (i.e. between 533 centimetres (210 in) to 628 centimetres (247 in) depending on which cubit standard is used) (in some later versions this number is reduced to 5 cubits). While serving the king of Canaan, he gets it into his head that he must go and serve "the greatest prince there was". He joins the king reputed to be the greatest, but one day he sees the king cross himself at the mention of the devil. On thus learning that the king fears the devil, he leaves to look for the devil. He comes across a band of marauders, one of whom declares himself to be the devil, so Christopher decides to serve him. When he sees his new master avoid a wayside cross, he realises that the devil fears Christ. He then leaves the service of the devil and enquires from people where to find Christ. He meets a hermit who instructs him in the Christian faith. Christopher asks him how he can serve Christ. When the hermit suggests fasting and prayer, Christopher replies that he is unable to perform that service. The hermit then suggests that because of his size and strength Christopher can serve Jesus by assisting people to cross a dangerous river. The hermit promises that this service will be pleasing to Christ.

After Christopher has performed this service for some time, a little child asks him to be taken across the river. During the crossing, the river starts to swell and the child feels as heavy as lead. Christopher can scarcely carry the child and finds himself in great difficulty. When he finally manages to reach the other side, he tells the child: "You have put me in the greatest danger. I do not think the whole world could have been as heavy on my shoulders as you were." The child replies: "You had on your shoulders not only the whole world but Him who made it. I am Christ your king, whom you are serving by this work." The child then vanishes.

Christopher later visits Lycia. Upon his prayers, the Christian God bestows on him the gift to speak the local language. He goes to the placce where he comforts the Christians who are being martyred. He is hit in the face by the judges. He prays for the Christian God to make his walking stick bear fruit and flowers as this would facilitate his efforts to convert the people. After his prayer is answered, he converts 8,000 people. King Dagarus then sends two knights to fetch him but they don't dare to take him when they find him in prayer. More knights are then sent to fetch him. When they find him in prayer, they offer him the opportunity to flee but he refuses it. They then immediately convert. On his request they bind him and lead him to the king.

The king falls from his throne as soon as he sees Christopher. The king asks him about his background and later states that Christopher has a foolish name, as he is named after Christ who was crucified and could not help himself and neither can he benefit Christopher. The king asks him why he refuses to sacrifice to their Gods. Christopher then in turn insults the king's name and his Gods whom he states to be "made with the hands of men." The king gives him the choice to offer sacrifice to the pagan Gods and receive gifts or refuse to make such offerings and then die a painful death. Upon Christopher's refusal to sacrifice he is thrown in jail and the knights who were converted by him are executed. The king sends two beautiful women named Bisena and Aquilina to the jail with the promise of a royal reward if they can tempt the saint into sin. Christopher converts the women to Christianity, as he had earlier converted thousands in the city. The women are later told by the king that they will die if they don't sacrifice to the pagan Gods. The women pretend that they will make the offers but instead they destroy all the effigies of the Gods. They are then executed in a painful manner. The king orders Christopher to be killed. Various methods are attempted to execute the saint, including shooting him with arrows. One of the arrows returns suddenly and pierces the king's eye blinding it. The execution attempts initially fail until he is successfully martyred by beheading. In an interesting twist in the legend, the king applies some of the martyr's blood to his blinded eye which is immediately healed. The king then becomes a believer in the Christian God and orders any person who blames the Christian God or Saint Christopher to be put to the sword.

Other legendary accounts

According to the medieval Irish Passion of St. Christopher, "This Christopher was one of the Dog-heads, a race that had the heads of dogs and ate human flesh." The German bishop and poet Walter of Speyer portrayed St. Christopher in his Vita et passio sancti Christopher martyris as a giant of a cynocephalic species in the land of the Chananeans who ate human flesh and barked. Eventually, Christopher meets the infant Jesus, regrets his former behavior and receives baptism. He is further rewarded with a human appearance, whereupon he devotes his life to Christian service as an athlete of God and one of the soldier saints.

Some Eastern Orthodox communities, particularly in south-eastern Europe, saw the development of legends in which St. Christopher was initially a handsome man rather than the ugly dog-headed saint of the traditional stories. An unpublished copy of the life of St. Christopher dated to the 13th century in the library of the Great Lavra monastery on Mount Athos recounts that this good-looking St. Christopher came from a ridge of rocky hills resembling dog heads named Cynoscephale located near the ancient city of Scotussa in Thessaly, Greece. This new detail in the story proposes an alternative explanation for why the earlier traditions mistakenly described the saint as having the head of a dog. According to a folk tradition in Cyprus, the martyr led a solitary life and was God-fearing and handsome, which attracted local women. Wanting to avoid temptation, St. Christopher prayed to God to disfigure him upon which he was given his dog head.