Sippar

History

While pottery finds indicate that the site of Sippar was in use as early as the Uruk period, substantial occupation occurred only in the Early Dynastic and Akkadian Empire periods of the 3rd millennium BC, the Old Babylonian and Kassite periods of the 2nd millennium BC, and the Neo-Babylonian times of the 1st millennium BC. Lesser levels of use continued into the time of the Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian Empires.

Early Bronze Age

Despite the fact that thousands of cuneiform clay tablets have been recovered at the site, relatively little is known about the history of Sippar. In the Sumerian king list a king of Sippar, En-men-dur-ana, is listed as one of the early pre-dynastic rulers of the region but has not yet turned up in the epigraphic records.

Akkadian period

Sippar was the cult site of the sun god (Sumerian Utu, Akkadian Shamash), along with his consort Aya, and the home of his temple E-babbara (𒂍𒌓𒌓𒊏, means "white house") where the Cruciform Monument of Manishtushu was found. Mamu, the daughter of Shamash, also had a temple in Sippar as did the goddesses Nin-Isina, Ninḫegal, Ninkarrak, and Tašmētum.

In the later part of the 3rd millennium BC, a large coalition of city-states led by Iphur-Kis of Kish (Sumer) and Amar-Girid of Uruk, joined by Enlil-nizu of Nippur, and including the city-states of "Kutha, TiWA, Sippar, Kazallu, Kiritab, [Api]ak and GN" as well as "Amorite [hi]ghlanders" revolted against Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin of Akkad. The rebellion was joined by the city of Borsippa, among others. The revolt was crushed.

Middle Bronze Age

Sippar was the production center of wool. It also produced some of the finest Old Babylonian cylinder seals.

Middle Bronze I

In Middle Bronze IB (c. 1900-1820 BC), the city-state of Babylon started to expand. Sippar eventually came within the Babylonian realm. Sumu-la-El of Babylon (r. 1878-1843 BC) conducted several military campaigns gaining control over Sippar. In his 29th year of reign, Sumulael reported building the city wall of Sippar. Sabium (r. 1842-1829 BC) did some religious activity dedicated to Utu/Shamash, Marduk in one of his year-names. Apil-Sin (r. 1828-1812 BC) did some activity in Sippar in his Year 14.

Based on Shamash Temple records Sippar ruler Immerum (Akkadian for sheep or ram) is known to have been roughly contemporary with the rule of Sumu-la-El and independent of though possibly vassal to Babylon. He is also mentioned in a oath on a text found at Šaduppûm (Tell Harmal). Another was found at Chagar Bazar. He is suggested to have been ruling Sippar when Babylon took control based on a text sealed with oaths to both Immerum and Sumu-la-El. In another text detailing gifts for dignitaries Sumu-abum, first ruler of the First Babylonian Empire received the largest gift with Immerum and Sumu-la-El (2nd ruler of that empire) receiving smaller gifts. Four year names of Immerum are known including "The year (in which) the temple of Inanna Immerum built". Another year name was "Year when Immerum dug the Asuhu canal". It was suggested that Immerum could also be read as Nur^d-Immer. In the Immerum year name "The year (in which) he fashioned two BALAG li-li-ìs for Shamash" a Balag is a musical instrument used in religious ceremonies by a Gala priest. The ruler Ammi-ṣura (Hammi-ṣura) is known from 8 texts a several year names including "Year: Ammi-ṣura laid the foundations of Adad’s temple". Another ruler, Buntaätun-ila, is also known from texts one, dated with the year name "Year Bunu-tahtun-ila (became) king", also bears a synchronism with Sumu-la-El. In another year name he brought a kettledrum (lilissu drum) into the temple of Ninkarrak/Gula. Buntaätun-ila is generally thought to be the final independent ruler of Sippar before it came under the control of Babylon. The ruler Ilum-ma-Ila is only known from texts. The rulers Altinû and Lipit-Ištar have also been suggested as rulers of Sippar in this period. year names are known including "The year in which Lipit-Ištar expelled the Amorites". They definitely ruled somewhere the question is whether it was at Sippar.

Middle Bronze II (c. 1820-1587 BC)

Sin-Muballit (r. 1811-1793 BC) controlled the city and a sealed clay envelope is known.

Some years later Hammurabi of Babylon (r. 1792-1750 BC) reported laying the foundations of the city wall of Sippar in his 23rd year and worked on the wall again in his 43rd year. His successor in Babylon, Samsu-iluna (r. 1749-1712 BC) worked on Sippar's wall in his 1st year. The city walls, being typically made of mud bricks, required much attention. The Code of Hammurabi stele was probably erected at Sippar. Shamash was the god of justice, and he is depicted handing authority to the king in the image at the top of the stele.

The city flourished under Babylonian rule until the Sack of Babylon by Mursili I of Hatti around 1587 BC.

Late Bronze Age

The city then came under the control of the Kassite dynasty. In the final years of that dynasty the Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte (c. 1184 to 1155 BC) captured Sippar. Shutruk-Nakhunte carried back statues from the Shamash temple to Susa adding his own inscription to a stele of the Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin:

"I am Shutruk-Nahhunte, son of Hallutush-Inshushinak, beloved servant of the god Inshushinak, king of Anshan and Susa, who has enlarged the kingdom, who takes care of the lands of Elam, the lord of the land of Elam. When the god Inshushinak gave me the order, I defeated Sippar. I took the stele of Naram-Sin and carried it off, bringing it to the land of Elam. For Inshushinak, my god, I set it as an offering."

Iron Age

Neo-Babylonian period

In the succeeding Late Bronze Age collapse period, it was taken by the Neo-Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar I about 1120 BC. In the reign of Neo-Babylonian ruler Adad-apla-iddina (c. 1064–1043 BC) the Shamash cult center along with all the other temples in Sippar were destroyed by Suteans and cult symbol of Shamash was lost.

Neo-Assyrian period

In the early 1st millennium BC, Sippar came under Neo-Assyrian control. After the final defeat of the Neo-Assyrians by the Neo-Babylonians at the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC text report that a number of Egyptian and Assyrian prisoners were brought to Sippar as chattel. Records of Neo-Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) and Nabonidos (556-539 BC) record that they repaired the Shamash temple E-babbara.

Achaemenid period

After the Battle of Opis in September 539 BC Sippar surrendered to the Achaemenid Empire, followed soon after by the fall of the Neo-Babylonian empire.

After the Battle of Guagamela in 331 BCE, a cuneiform tablet records a message originating in Sippar from Alexander the Great to the people of Babylon promising that he "shall not enter your houses."

Speculation

Xisuthros, the "Chaldean Noah" in Sumerian mythology, is said by Berossus to have buried the records of the antediluvian world here—possibly because the name of Sippar was supposed to be connected with sipru, "a writing". And according to Abydenus, Nebuchadnezzar II excavated a great reservoir in the neighbourhood.

Pliny (Natural History 6.30.123) mentions a sect of Chaldeans called the Hippareni. It is often assumed that this name refers to Sippar (especially because the other two schools mentioned seem to be named after cities as well: the Orcheni after Uruk, and the Borsippeni after Borsippa), but this is not universally accepted.

Sippar has been suggested as the location of the Biblical Sepharvaim in the Old Testament, which alludes to the two parts of the city in its dual form.