Sranan Tongo · Lablypedia

Sranan Tongo developed among Afro-Surinamese, enslaved Africans from Central and West Africa, especially along the Caribbean coastline, after contact with English planters and indentured workers from 1651–67. Its use expanded to the Dutch colonists, who took over the territory in 1667, and decided to maintain the local language as a lingua franca. Because the number of English colonists was massively reduced following the arrival of the Dutch, the later Dutch and African additions and influences to the language have made it distinct from other Afro-Caribbean creoles based on English. There are also influences from Portuguese present in the language.

History

Sranan Tongo likely developed from an English-based pidgin, when English colonists in what was then part of the English colony of Guiana brought enslaved Africans for the plantations. The enslaved Africans, who were often from various tribes, did not have an African language in common and developed a pidgin to communicate. After the Dutch takeover in 1667, following the Treaty of Breda (1667) (in exchange for ceding the North American eastern seaboard colony of New Netherland to the English), a substantial overlay of words was adopted from the Dutch language, making it a secondary lexifier. There were also additions from Spanish and Portuguese—some of these dating from earlier Portuguese occupation of the colony, which preceded the arrival of the British.

The first enslaved Africans probably spoke Gbe or KiKongo languages as their native tongues, and were bilingual for some time. In the early 18th century (1720), large numbers of Akan people (65%) from the region then called the Gold Coast were also transported to plantations in Suriname. The addition of the Akan language into early Sranan Tongo, which had already undergone a process of creolisation at that time, further altered the language, causing relexification and giving the creole its own distinct form of Africanisms. As other ethnic groups, such as East Indians, Chinese and Javanese, were brought to Suriname as indentured workers, Sranan Tongo became a lingua franca.

Indigenous peoples in Suriname also intermarried with enslaved Africans, adding a significant amount of their cultural influence to Sranan and Afro-Surinamese culture.

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Characteristics

Despite having a significant number of English-language words in its lexicon, the lack of contact with English speakers from the 17th century means Sranan Tongo is seldom mutually intelligible with modern English and is distinct from most other English-based creoles. Some of the African language influences of Sranan Tongo are Gbe (Fon, Ewe, Aja, Gun, Gen (Mina), Xwelak), KiKongo, and Akan (Twi and Fante). The African influence on Sranan can be found in its grammar, morphology and phonology. Next to its idioms and idiophones in addition to its culinary, botanical, zoological, anatomical, artifactual, musical and ritual Winti lexicon. The influence of the Cariban languages, Carib and Arawak, can be found in Sranan's botanical, zoological, musical, culinary and Winti lexicon.

Remnants of Sranan's Portuguese-based period can still be traced in its lexical items of Portuguese origin and the Ancestral tradition of Odos. These are Afro-Surinamese people’s proverbs, folklore and stories, passed down generationally during slavery through oral tradition in Sranan. These stories are still a part of Afro-Surinamese culture and identity, with many that can be traced back to specific regions in Central and West Africa where they originated.

Phonology and orthography

Until the middle of the 20th century, most written texts in Sranan, seen at the time as a low-prestige language, used a spelling that was not standardised but based on Dutch orthography. In view of the considerable differences between the phonologies of Sranan and Dutch, this was not a satisfactory situation.

With the emergence of a movement striving for the emancipation of Sranan as a respectable language, the need for a phonology-based orthography was felt. A more suitable orthography developed as an informal consensus from the publications of linguists studying Sranan and related creoles. For everyday use, the Dutch-based spelling remained common, while some literary authors adopted (variants of) the linguistic spelling. To end this situation, the Surinamese government commissioned a committee of linguists and writers to define a standard spelling, which was adopted and came into force in 1986. This standard essentially followed the linguistic consensus. As the language is not taught in schools, while Dutch is, many speakers are not clearly aware of the principles on which this spelling is based and continue to use a Dutch-like, variant spelling.

Modern use

Although the formal Dutch-based educational system repressed the use of Sranan Tongo, in the past pejoratively dismissed as Taki Taki (literally meaning 'talk talk' or 'say say') and Negerengels (literally meaning 'Negro-English'), it gradually became more accepted by the establishment and wider society to speak it. During the 1980s, this language was popularised by publicly known speakers, including former president Dési Bouterse, who often delivered national speeches in Sranan Tongo.

Sranan Tongo remains widely used in Suriname and in Dutch urban areas populated by immigrants from Suriname. They especially use it in casual conversation, often freely mixing it with Dutch. Written code-switching between Sranan Tongo and Dutch is also common in computer-mediated communication.

In 2021, Sranan Tongo appeared for the first time in the Eurovision Song Contest in Jeangu Macrooy's song, "Birth of a New Age".

Literature

As a written language, Sranan Tongo has existed since the late 18th century. The first publication in Sranan Tongo was in 1783 by Hendrik Schouten who wrote a part Dutch, part Sranan Tongo poem, called Een huishoudelijke twist ('A Domestic Tiff'). The first important book was published in 1864 by Johannes King, and relates to his travels to Drietabbetje for the Moravian Church.

Early writers often used their own spelling system. An official orthography was adopted by the government of Suriname on July 15, 1986, in Resolution 4501. A few writers have used Sranan in their work, most notably the poet Henri Frans de Ziel ("Trefossa"), who also wrote God zij met ons Suriname, Suriname's national anthem, whose second verse is sung in Sranan Tongo.

Other notable writers in Sranan Tongo are Eugène Drenthe, André Pakosie, Celestine Raalte, Michaël Slory, and Bea Vianen.

Example

Following are the Lord's Prayer in standard and Dutch-based spelling, followed by an English translation.