Tilth

Pore size

Soil that is well aggregated has a range of pore sizes. Each pore size plays a role in soil's physical functioning. Large pores drain rapidly and are needed for good air exchange during wet periods, preventing oxygen deficiency that can drown plants and increase pest problems. Oxygen-deficient wet soils increase denitrification – conversion of nitrogen to gaseous forms. In degraded soil, large pores are compressed into small ones.

Small pores are critical for water retention and help a crop endure dry periods with minimal yield loss.

Management

Soil tilth is naturally maintained by the interaction of plant roots with the soil biota.

Short lived tilth can be obtained through mechanical and biological manipulation.

Tillage

In 2021, the globally tilled soil volume was estimated at 1840 km³/yr. This value exceeds by two orders of magnitude the global total of all engineering earthworks. For comparison globally, the natural process of soil bioturbation by plant roots and earthworms, was estimated at 960 km³/yr.

Mechanical soil cultivation practices, including primary tillage (mold-board or chisel plowing) followed by secondary tillage (disking, harrowing, etc.), break up and aerate soil. Mechanical traffic and intensive tilling methods have a negative impact on soil aggregates, friability, soil porosity, and soil-bulk density. When soils become degraded and compacted, such tillage practices are often deemed necessary. The tilth created by tillage, however, tends to be unstable, because the aggregation is obtained through the physical manipulation of the soil, which is short lived, especially after years of intensive tillage.

The compaction of soil aggregates can also decrease soil biota due to the low levels of oxygen in the top-soil. The resulting high soil-bulk density results in lower water infiltration from rainfall or conventional irrigation (surface, sprinkler, center-pivot); in turn, the series of processes will naturally erode and dissolve small soil particles and organic matter. The consequences from these processes cyclically require more tilling and intervention, thus tillage practices have the capability to disrupt biological mechanisms that stabilize soil structure, the soil carbon sponge and tilth quality.

Biological

The preferred scenario for good tilth is as the result of natural soil-building processes, provided by the activity of plant roots, microorganisms, earthworms and other beneficial organisms. Such stable aggregates break apart during tillage/planting and readily provide good tilth.

Soil biota and organic matter work in unison to bind soil aggregates and establish a natural soil stability – a soil carbon sponge. Plant root exudates feed bacteria that emit extracellular polysaccharides (EPS), and feed the growth of fungal hyphae, to form a soil carbon sponge with the dispersed clay particles. These active tilth-forming processes contribute to the formation and stabilization of soil structure.

The resulting soil structure reduces tensile strength and soil-bulk density while still forming soil aggregates through their abiotic/biotic binding mechanisms that resist breakdown during water saturation. The fungal hyphae networks can establish a role of enmeshment with EPS and rhizodeposition, thus improving aggregate stability. However, these organic materials are themselves subject to biological degradation, requiring active amendments with organic material, and minimal mechanical tillage.

Tilth quality is heavily dependent on these naturally binding processes between biotic microorganisms and abiotic soil particles, as well as the necessary input of organic matter. All constituents in this naturally binding network must be supplied or managed in agriculture to ensure the sustainability of their presence through growing seasons.

Rotation

Crop rotation can help restore tilth in compacted soils. Two processes contribute to this gain. First, accelerated organic matter decomposition from tillage ends under the sod crop. Another way to achieve this is via no-till farming. Second, grass and legume sods develop extensive root systems that continually grow and die off. The dead roots supply a source of active organic matter, which feeds soil organisms that create aggregation – the soil carbon sponge. Beneficial organisms need continual supplies of organic matter to sustain themselves and they deposit the digested materials on soil aggregates and thereby stabilize them. Also, the living roots and symbiotic microorganisms (for example, mycorrhizal fungi) can exude organic materials that nourish soil organisms and help with aggregation. Grass and legume sod crops therefore deposit more organic matter in the soil than most other crops.

Some annual rotation crops, such as buckwheat, also have dense, fibrous, root systems and can improve tilth. Crop mixtures with different rooting systems can be beneficial. For example, red clover seeded into winter wheat provides additional roots and a more protein-rich soil organic matter.

Other rotation crops are more valuable for improving subsoils. Perennial crops, such as alfalfa, have strong, deep, penetrating tap roots that can push through hard layers, especially during wet periods when the soil is soft. These deep roots establish pathways for water and future plant roots, and produce soil organic matter.

Crops rotation can extend the period of active growth compared to conventional row crops, leaving more organic material behind. For example, in a corn–soybean rotation, active growth occurs 32% of the time, while a dry bean–winter wheat–corn rotation is active 72% of the time. Crops such as rye, wheat, oat, barley, pea and cool-season grasses grow actively in the late fall and early spring when other crops are inactive. They are beneficial both as rotation and cover crops, although intensive tillage can negate their effects.

Soil types

The soil management practices required to maintain soil tilth are a function of the soil type. Sandy and gravelly soils are naturally deficient in small pores and are therefore drought-prone, whereas loams and clays can retain and thus supply crops with more water.

Coarse-textured, sandy soils

Sandy soil has a lower capacity to hold water and nutrients. Water is frequently applied in smaller amounts to avoid leaching and carrying nutrients below the root zone. Routine application of organic matter increases sandy soil's ability to hold water and nutrients by 10 times or more.

Fine-textured, clay soils

Clay soils lack large pores, restricting both water and air movement. During irrigation or rain events, the limited large pore space in fine-textured soils quickly fills with water, reducing soil oxygen levels. In addition to routine application of organic matter, microorganisms and earthworms perform a crucial role in soil tilth. As microorganisms decompose the organic matter, soil particles bind into larger aggregates, increasing large pore space. Clay soils are more subject to soil compaction, which reduces large pore spaces.

Gravelly and decomposed granite soils

Such soils natively have little tilth, especially once they have been disturbed. Adding organic matter up to 25% by volume can help compensate. For example, if tilling to a depth of eight inches, add two inches of organic materials.