Early Pandyan kingdom

History

Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the political history of the ancient Pandya country based on classical works such as the Purananuru, the Pattuppāṭṭu and the Padirrupattu.

The first Pandyan king who has been mentioned in the Sangam works recovered so far is Nedunjeliyan I, who ruled from the coastal town of Korkai, at the mouth of river Tamraparni. During this time, the Tamil country consisted of several small kingdoms ruled over by independent chieftains, in addition to the three monarchies of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. In a bid to expand his territory, Nedunj Cheliyan I invaded the kingdom of Koodal (later renamed Madurai), which was under the rule of an independent chieftain, Akutai. He defeated Akutai and moved the capital of Pandyan kingdom to Madurai. This king also defeated an invading army from the Deccan Plateau and hence was called Aariyap Padaikadantha Pandyan. He was succeeded by his son Pudappandiyan, who expanded the kingdom by conquering Ollaiyur (near modern-day Pudukkottai) – an act that earned him the name Ollaiyur Thantha Pudappandian. Both Pudappandiyan and his predecessor, Nedunj Cheliyan I, were poets themselves who contributed to the Purananuru collection.

The successor of Pudappandiyan was Nedunj Cheliyan II also known as "Pasumpun Pandyan". Immediately after ascending the throne, he marched with his troops to the north of Vaigai and defeated the chieftain Evvi II. He then headed west and captured the Aayi territory controlled by another chieftain, Atiyan. Both Evvi II and Atiyan were made commanders of the Pandyan army for his battles against Kongu country that was further west. From here he expanded the Pandyan kingdom almost to the western coast, which earned him the title Vidambalamba Ninra Pandyan (the Pandyan whose kingdom was washed by two seas). Since he was responsible for expanding the Pandyan kingdom by annexing several kingdoms, he was also called Pannadu Thantha Pandyan (the Pandyan who annexed many lands). His successor, Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, was also a great warrior and carried the devastation into enemy territories. He performed yagas with the aid of Brahmin priests, similar to the tradition in northern India at that time.

The next king in the hierarchy was Nedunj Cheliyan III, who is considered the greatest of all the early Pandyan kings. Since the Pandyan kingdom was considerably larger than a few generations ago, he had to defend it against many neighbors invading from various fronts. Not only did he succeed in defending his territory, he also seems to have advanced into the enemy territories – the southern province of Cholas and eastern province of the Cheras. At one point, it is said that a coalition of his neighbors including the Cheras, Cholas and five other kingdoms, met him at a pitched battle in Talaialanganam, in present-day Tanjore district. Nedunj Cheliyan emerged victorious in the battle that ensued and ended up annexing several new territories to his kingdom. He thus came to be known as Talaialanganathu Seruvendra Pandyan. The genealogy after this king is not very clear but there are at least four other kings who are thought to have ruled in the immediate succeeding generations. Notable among them were, Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan for the fact that he conquered the town of Musiri on the coast of the Arabian Sea and Ukkirap Peruvaludi for the fact that it was in his court that the famous poet Tiruvalluvar submitted his much-acclaimed work Tirukkural. Ilanji Vel is one among the ancient velirs of the Yadu Kingdom.[1] He ruled a territory called Ilanji, near Courtallam. He belongs to the clan of ancient Pandyas.

Government

The head of the government was the king, a hereditary monarch. His power was restricted by the Aimberunguzhu (Tamil: ஐம்பெருங்குழு) or the Five Great Assemblies, which consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers and the ministers. There was another assembly of officials that served the king called the Enberaayam (Tamil: எண்பேராயம்) or the Eight Groups of Attendants. While some scholars believe it consisted of attendants on the king's person like the perfumers, dressing valets, etc., others believe it consisted of more important persons like the people of the capital city, the leaders of the elephant corps and of the cavalry. The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army. The king divided his territory into a number of administrative units or principalities, each called a Kootram (Tamil: கூற்றம்). A Kootram was further divided into provinces called Mandalam, which in turn was divided into many sub-provinces called Nadus, with each Nadu consisting of many villages. A locality inside a town or village was called Ur and each neighborhood inside an Ur was called a Cheri. While the king ruled over his entire territory from the capital, he often placed one or more principalities (Kootram) under the near-sovereign government of some senior member of the royal family or a feudatory. The village was the most fundamental unit of administration under the Pandyas. The affairs of a village were the responsibility of its elders, who supervised the judicial, administrative and financial functions.

Justice was administered free of charge, by special officers appointed as judges and magistrates, but the king was supreme and the final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. Mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, breach of contract were some common sources of civil litigation, while criminal offences included theft, adultery, forgery and treason. The punishments were very severe and hence crimes were rare: one caught in the act of burglary, adultery or spying was given the death penalty and one giving false testimony would have his tongue cut off. The king was the chief commander of the army and usually led his army in the battlefield. The military was said to be fourfold : the infantry, the cavalry, the elephantry and the chariotry. A wide variety of war weapons filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears, tridents, maces, bows and arrows. The main sources of royal revenue were taxes, tributes, customs duties and tolls. Land tax, paid in money or in kind, and income tax, equal to one-sixth of an individual's income, were the major types of taxes collected. Other sources of revenue include tributes paid by feudal subordinates, war booty presents by loyal and visiting subjects, treasure troves besides land revenue, cess and forced gifts. The items incurring expenditure for the king include the military, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational and health services, building infrastructure such as roads and irrigation and the palace household expenses.

Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of many women poets in the Sangam works – some of them include Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar, Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar.

A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of cotton and silk. People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by the hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece of cloth around the waist. Women covered their upper body with a kind of dress called kachchu. Among the higher classes, men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. Women of sophisticated society wore half sarees, made of the finest cotton and silk fabrics, with embroidery. Both men and women sported long tresses of hair. The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use. Meat eating was discouraged as expounded in the ancient Tamil literature Thirukkural, Naladiyar etc. The kind of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of the occupants. The rich built their houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from the wind. Cots were in common use – the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan's feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay.

Culture

Religion

Economy

History and prominent rulers

Capital and origins

According to Tamil tradition and early inscriptions, the Pandyas originally ruled from the coastal port of Korkai, located near the mouth of the Thamirabarani River. During the reign of Nedunjeliyan I, the capital was relocated inland to Koodal (modern Madurai) following the defeat of local chieftain Akutai.

Major monarchs

• Nedunjeliyan I (Aariyap Padaikadantha Pandyan): Recorded as the first major historically documented Pandyan monarch. He earned his title ("the Pandyan who defeated the Aryan/Northern armies") after repelling an invasion from northern forces. He is associated with the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions at Mangulam.
• Pudappandiyan (Ollaiyur Thantha Pudappandian): Son and successor of Nedunjeliyan I, he expanded Pandyan territory northward into Ollaiyur (near modern Pudukkottai). Pudappandiyan was himself a poet whose compositions are preserved in the Purananuru.
• Pasumpun Pandyan (Nedunjeliyan II): Known also as *Pannadu Thantha Pandyan* ("the Pandyan who annexed many lands"), he expanded the realm westward to the Arabian Sea coast after defeating local chieftains Evvi and Atiyan.
• Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi: A warlord and patron of Vedic religion, he was celebrated for performing numerous horse sacrifices (Ashvamedha) to commemorate military victories. He issued specialized coinage depicting Vedic altars.
• Nedunjeliyan III (Talaialanganathu Seruvendra Nedunjeliyan): Widely considered the most celebrated warrior-king of the Early Pandyas. Ascending the throne as a youth, he defeated a formidable combined coalition of the Cholas, Cheras, and five minor chieftains (*Velir*) at the landmark Battle of Talaialanganam, establishing Pandyan hegemony over southern Tamilakam.

Economy and coinage

Pearl fisheries and maritime trade

The Early Pandyan economy relied heavily on coastal pearl diving around the Gulf of Mannar, centered at the port of Korkai. Ancient writers, including Pliny and the author of the Periplus, noted that Pandyan pearls were among the finest in the classical world.

The kingdom maintained active maritime routes connecting the Mediterranean Basin, Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, Southeast Asia, and Han Dynasty China. Major export goods included pearls, pepper, cardamom, ivory, and tortoiseshell. Imports consisted of Roman gold and silver aurei, glass, fine wines, and foreign horses.

Numismatics

The Early Pandyas issued a distinct series of square and rectangular punch-marked silver and copper coins. The obverse featured various symbols such as elephants, bulls, and Vedic altars, while the reverse consistently displayed the royal Pandyan dynastic emblem—a stylized double fish (carp).

Administration and society

Government

The government was a hereditary monarchy. The king was advised by two major assemblies:

• Aimberunguzhu (The Assembly of Five): Consisting of ministers, priests, military commanders, envoys, and spies.
• Enberaayam (The Assembly of Eight): Comprising executive officers, revenue officials, and treasury managers.

Religion

Early Pandyan society was pluralistic. Jainism enjoyed significant royal patronage, as evidenced by the stone beds carved into rock shelters around Madurai. Brahmanical Hinduism and Buddhism were also widely practiced alongside indigenous Dravidian ancestor and deity worship, such as the veneration of Seyon (Murugan) and Kotravai.