Jakarta

History

Early settlements and Sunda Kelapa

The Buni culture was a prehistoric pottery culture found in the coastal areas of northern and western Java. It is dated to roughly 400 BC–AD 100, with evidence suggesting that it may have continued until about AD 500. Written evidence from this period includes the mid-fifth-century Tugu inscription, found near Tanjung Priok in present-day North Jakarta. The inscription mentions the Candrabhaga and Gomati waterways and mentions a King Purnawarman dugging the Gomati river. But it is unclear who was responsible for the Candrabhaga or how the two projects were related.

By the 10th century, the Sunda Kingdom had emerged in western Java and ruled the area around present-day Jakarta. The Chinese work Chu-fan-chi describes Sin-t'o as having a harbour and producing pepper, with the work's translators Friedrich Hirth and William Woodville Rockhill identifying the place meant as Sunda in western Java. By the early 16th century, Kalapa was one of the Sunda Kingdom's leading ports. Tomé Pires described it as Sunda's most important trading port, drawing ships from Sumatra, Malacca, Java and elsewhere.

In March 1513, the Portuguese captain at Malacca sent four ships to Java to obtain spices. The Sunda Kingdom concluded a treaty with Portugal on 21 August 1522. It allowed the Portuguese to build a fortress at Kalapa, as Sunda sought Portuguese support amid pressure from the sultanates of Cirebon and Demak. In 1527, Islamic forces captured Kalapa, but sources differ over whether Fatahillah or Sunan Gunung Jati led the conquest. After the conquest, Kalapa became a dependency of the Banten Sultanate and was recorded in foreign sources as Iacarta, Xacatra or Jacatra. Banten later developed into a major maritime power in western Java.

Batavia under Dutch rule

In the early 17th century, Jayakarta was under Banten's control and became an object of rivalry between Dutch (VOC) and English (EIC) trading interests. Following a siege, Dutch naval officer Jan Pieterszoon Coen returned with reinforcements in May 1619, overran Jayakarta and burned the royal residence. The VOC established its Asian headquarters on the site and subsequently named the settlement Batavia.

Batavia developed as a walled canal city on the low coastal plain at the mouth of the Ciliwung river. However, the canals flowed poorly and accumulated sediment, and rapid coastal silting contributed to unhealthy conditions. After the 1730s, Batavia became markedly less healthy, and wealthy residents increasingly moved away from the old town.

Despite these health problems, Batavia remained the VOC's main administrative centre in Asia and an important trading port. Chinese residents were involved in Batavia's trade, agriculture, crafts, and construction, and lived both within the city and in the surrounding countryside (Ommelanden). In 1740, unrest among Chinese labourers in the Ommelanden and the VOC's response escalated into a massacre of Chinese residents in Batavia. After the massacre, Chinese settlement began settling outside the city walls. In March 1741, the VOC designated a Chinese quarter at Diestpoort, south of Batavia, in an area later known as Glodok.

By the early 19th century, residents were moving away from the unhealthy old town, and the move to Weltevreden (present-day Central Jakarta) sped up Batavia's southward growth. Weltevreden developed around government buildings and spacious residences with gardens, while the lower old town remained a commercial district that included the Chinese quarter. Subsequent growth extended Batavia southward to Menteng and incorporated Meester Cornelis (present-day Jatinegara). In March 1942, Dutch forces surrendered Batavia to Japan, and the Japanese occupation authorities renamed the city Jakarta.

Jakarta in independent Indonesia

Indonesia's independence was proclaimed in Jakarta on 17 August 1945. During the first months of the Indonesian National Revolution, authority in Jakarta was contested among Indonesian, Japanese and Dutch officials. British forces intervened to restore order and a Dutch political takeover was initially blocked by the Allies. As the British consolidated control of Jakarta, the Republican government moved to Yogyakarta, which became its capital in early 1946. Jakarta was made the capital again in 1950 after the federal United States of Indonesia was replaced by the unitary republic of Indonesia.

Under first President Sukarno, Jakarta became the focus of major nation-building projects, some of which were part of preparations for the Asian Games in 1962. These projects included the National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, Sarinah, the Senayan sports complex, and the Thamrin–Sudirman axis. In 1964, new legislation formally reaffirmed the Special Capital Region of Jakarta as Indonesia's capital.

The violence and political upheaval of 1965–66 marked General Suharto's rise to power and the beginning of the New Order. Under Governor Ali Sadikin (1966–77), Jakarta expanded the Kampung Improvement Program to improve basic services in dense kampungs, but modernisation also displaced some poor neighbourhoods. From the 1980s, deregulation and greater private and foreign investment accelerated high-rise construction along Thamrin-Sudirman and large industrial, commercial and residential projects on the metropolitan outskirts.

The Asian financial crisis in 1997–98 intensified student protests and widespread violence in Jakarta. After mounting political pressure, President Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. In the Reformasi era, decentralisation changed Jakarta's local governance, and residents directly elected the governor for the first time in 2007. In 2022, the central government laid the legal groundwork for moving the national capital from Jakarta to Nusantara. The capital's legal functions remain in Jakarta until a presidential decree formally transfers them to Nusantara.

Geography

Jakarta covers about 662 square kilometres (256 sq mi) of land and 6,977 square kilometres (2,694 sq mi) of sea area. Jakarta's urban area extends beyond the provincial boundary into the wider metropolitan region, commonly called Jabodetabek, which includes surrounding cities and regencies in West Java and Banten. Daily commuting links Jakarta with surrounding municipalities, which are Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi.

The city lies on Java's northwestern coast at the mouth of the Ciliwung river, facing Jakarta Bay. Except for some hilly areas in the south, Jakarta spreads across low, flat terrain. Much of Jakarta lies on an alluvial plain, with elevations ranging from below sea level to about 50 metres (160 feet). Thirteen rivers flow through the city from the south toward Jakarta Bay, including the Ciliwung, Angke, Sunter, and Grogol rivers. The alluvial plain was historically swampy, and seasonal flooding is common, which is caused by heavy rain and runoff from upstream areas. In addition, high tides, land subsidence, waste-clogged drainage and limited river capacity can worsen inundation.

Jakarta's flood-control policy has long favoured engineered measures, including canals, dredging, pumping stations and coastal defences. Land subsidence is a major driver of coastal-flood risk in northern Jakarta. Groundwater extraction and the weight of buildings and infrastructure are among the human causes of subsidence. Beyond flooding, Jakarta also faces severe river-water and air pollution, with air pollution imposing substantial health burdens.

Climate

Jakarta has a tropical monsoon climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Rainfall is much heavier from December to March, while June to September is relatively dry. Flooding is common during the rainy season. Heavy rain and upstream runoff can overwhelm rivers and drains, while high tides, land subsidence and urban development can further increase flood risk.

Jakarta remains warm throughout the year, with monthly means between 26 °C (78.8 °F) and 28 °C (82.4 °F) and the yearly average around 27 °C (80.6 °F). Average daily highs are about 32 °C (89.6 °F), while average daily lows are about 24.8 °C (76.6 °F). Over the long term, Jakarta has also become warmer, with its annual mean temperature rising by about 1.6 °C (2.9 °F) per century between 1866 and 2012.

Cityscape

Architecture

Jakarta's built environment includes Betawi vernacular architecture, colonial-era buildings, post-independence monuments and modern high-rises. Betawi houses are rooted in Malay architectural traditions, with decorative influences from Chinese, Dutch, Portuguese and Arab cultures. Their wide eaves, large openings, and open layouts are also suited to the tropical climate.

Jakarta's colonial architecture developed from the VOC-built core of Batavia through the 19th-century expansion to Weltevreden and further growth in the early 20th century. By the mid-19th century, Weltevreden had become the colonial administrative centre, with government buildings, elite residences, churches, shops and hotels.

In the early 20th century, planned neighbourhoods such as Menteng combined garden-city layouts with houses adapted to tropical conditions. Menteng, developed in the 1910s, was planned as a healthy residential district for the middle class. The early houses combined climate-adapted features such as broad eaves and open ventilation with modernist and Art Deco design.

After independence, Indonesia's first President Sukarno used major public works as part of nation-building, including the National Monument, the Senayan sports complex, and new major roads. The national legislative complex began as the CONEFO project in 1965. Its main Nusantara Building features a dome formed from two curved sections. From the late 20th century onward, high-rise development increasingly altered Jakarta's skyline, especially the Golden Triangle.

Parks and public spaces

Public parks and green open spaces occupy a limited share of Jakarta's land area. Green open space (ruang terbuka hijau, RTH) covered about 5.18% of Jakarta in 2023, well below the 30% minimum set by national spatial-planning law. Since 2015, the city has also developed child-friendly integrated public spaces (ruang publik terpadu ramah anak, RPTRA), neighbourhood facilities intended for play, social activity, and community use.

Merdeka Square (Medan Merdeka) in Central Jakarta surrounds the National Monument (Monas). Formerly the colonial Koningsplein (King's Square) in Weltevreden, it is now a government-managed public green space used for leisure, sport, and political activities. Nearby Lapangan Banteng, located beside Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral, is a public-history and commemorative space that includes the West Irian Liberation Monument and accommodates also everyday public use.

Other public spaces include Suropati Park and Menteng Park in Menteng, while Kalijodo Park has been redeveloped as green and child-friendly public space. Larger recreational sites include Ancol Dreamland, Ragunan Zoo, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, which was conceived as a cultural showcase of Indonesia's diversity.

Demographics

Migration has been an important source of Jakarta's population growth. Jakarta experienced substantial migration after independence in 1945 and has drawn people from across Indonesia, including many seeking work. In 1961, 51% of Jakarta's population had been born in the city, while 46.7% had been born in other Indonesian provinces.

Recent population estimates for Jakarta differ because they use different definitions and geographic boundaries. In the first half of 2025, Jakarta's civil-registration records counted 11,010,514 residents registered at addresses in the province. The United Nations, using its Degree of Urbanization definition, estimated Jakarta's 2025 population at 41.9 million. The population of the metropolitan area has grown from 11.4 million people in 1980, and urban growth has also continued into Jakarta's suburbs, including Bogor, Bekasi, and Tangerang.

Ethnicity

In the 2010 census, no ethnic group made up a majority of Jakarta's Indonesian citizens. Javanese were the largest group, followed by Betawi, Sundanese, Chinese, and Batak. Minangkabau, Malay, Madurese, and other groups were also recorded. Migration from other parts of Indonesia has contributed to Jakarta's ethnic composition.

The Betawi people are regarded as Jakarta's indigenous ethnic group, but the community itself formed in colonial Batavia from people of varied origins. Early Batavia's population came from many parts of Asia and the Indonesian archipelago, including Chinese, Bandanese, South Indian Muslims, Malays, Balinese, Buginese, and Ambonese. Everyday contact across ethnic lines, including intermarriage, helped forge a shared Betawi identity. Islam also was an important bond across these groups. Today, Betawi communities live in central and peripheral parts of Jakarta and in nearby Bekasi and Tangerang.

Jakarta also has long-established Chinese communities. The Chinatown area around Glodok and Petak Sembilan dates back to the 1700s. Other Chinatown districts include Pasar Baru, Kelapa Gading, and Pluit. Pasar Baru is also associated with Jakarta's Indian community and is sometimes called 'Little India'.

Batak and Minangkabau were among the larger ethnic communities recorded in Jakarta in the 2010 census. Within Jakarta's Batak population, Toba Batak form the largest subgroup. Minangkabau migration to Jakarta is part of their practice of merantau. Comparison of census data shows recorded Minangkabau migrant destinations from 1.5% in 1930 to 25% in 1971.

Language

The Indonesian language is widely spoken across Jakarta, as it is the national and official language of Indonesia. It is also a language of wider communication across ethnic groups. The Betawi language embodies Jakarta's long history of contact among different cultural groups. Betawi Malay and colloquial Jakartan Indonesian are distinct varieties. The latter has been strongly influenced by Betawi Malay and has spread beyond Jakarta.

Some Jakarta communities continue to use regional languages in family and social settings, including Toba Batak and Minangkabau. Among young Chinese Indonesians surveyed in West and North Jakarta, everyday family language use has shifted toward Indonesian, while Chinese heritage languages are maintained unevenly across households.

Education

Jakarta and its surrounding metropolitan area has several major public universities. These include the University of Indonesia, the State University of Jakarta, and Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. The city also has a large private higher-education sector, including institutions such as Trisakti University and Binus University. In addition, the provincial government's list of international schools includes Jakarta Intercultural School and Australian Independent School.

Formal medical training in Batavia began in 1851 with a two-year course preparing young Javanese men for vaccination work. The programme grew in length and scope over time. STOVIA moved to Salemba in 1919, and the higher-level Batavia Medical School began taking students in 1927.

Religion

According to the Ministry of Religious Affairs data in 2025, 83.85% of Jakarta's population was Muslim. Christians accounted for 12.51%, followed by Buddhists (3.44%), Hindus (0.18%), Confucianis (0.02%), and a small number registered under other religions.

Several national Islamic organisations have offices in Jakarta. The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) and Nahdlatul Ulama's central board (PBNU) are based in Central Jakarta. Muhammadiyah is formally based in Yogyakarta, but its central leadership operates from offices in both Yogyakarta and Jakarta. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Jakarta is a metropolitan archdiocese with Bandung and Bogor as its suffragan dioceses.

Istiqlal Mosque, the largest mosque in Southeast Asia, stands opposite Jakarta Cathedral, and their proximity has long been presented as a symbol of interfaith tolerance. On Fridays, Islamic prayers usually involve large congregation of Muslims at mosques that on occasion extend into adjacent or nearby places. In addition, during major religious holidays, shopping malls often display temporary Eid al-Fitr- and Christmas-themed decorations.

Economy

Under Jakarta's 2024 special-region law, the city's post-capital-transfer role is defined as a national economic centre and global city, with activities spanning trade, services, finance, and national, regional, and global business. The economic significance of Jakarta developed over centuries, from Sunda Kelapa's role as a trading port to Batavia's commercial activities, and later to the wider metropolitan area's place in national and global economic networks.

In 2024, Jakarta's GRDP was Rp 3,679.36 trillion at current prices, while real economic output grew by 4.90% from 2023. Wholesale and retail trade, including motor-vehicle and motorcycle repair, accounted for 18.01% of Jakarta's economy in 2024, the largest industry share, while household consumption accounted for 62.03% on the expenditure side. Jakarta recorded Rp 241.9 trillion in realised investment in the same year, the second-largest provincial total in Indonesia.

Services dominate Jakarta's economy. Trade, finance, business services, information and communications, transport, hospitality, and public administration are part of the city's industries. Jakarta is closely connected to surrounding parts of West Java and Banten through commuting, transport infrastructure, and employment and development in suburban areas.

Shopping

Jakarta has a large retail sector, with modern shopping centres operating alongside traditional markets. According to a late 2024 data, Jakarta had about 4.81 million square metres of shopping-centre retail space. Grand Indonesia and Plaza Indonesia are among Jakarta's high-end shopping centres. Beyond shopping, Jakarta's malls are also used as air-conditioned social and leisure spaces, partly substituting for scarce public space. However, access to these privately controlled spaces is unequal.

Traditional markets (pasar) are also a part of the city's retail life. Examples include Tanah Abang, a major centre for wholesale textile trade, and Glodok where shops and market activity are part of the area's Chinese Indonesian urban character. Pasar Baru is a historic commercial district with a multicultural character, known for fashion and clothing, footwear and bags, textile and tailoring businesses, and jewellery.

Tourism

Jakarta is one of Indonesia's busiest entry points for foreign tourists. In 2024, it recorded about 2.5 million international tourist visits, representing 18.2% of Indonesia's total. In the first quarter of 2025, Jakarta recorded about 23.2 million domestic tourist trips. Input-output analysis found that tourism-related demand affects economic output, household income and employment, with transport and warehousing, accommodation and food services, and information and communication showing some of the largest multiplier effects.

Many foreign visitors arrive in Jakarta for business or transit. A 2016 study of foreign visitors identified several lifestyle segments, including one combining cultural interests with shopping. Shopping centres also form part of Jakarta's urban tourism, with some combining retail with green space, galleries, events and other leisure facilities.

Jakarta's tourist attractions include the National Monument (Monas), the Jakarta Old Town (Kota Tua), and Sunda Kelapa harbour. The 132-metre Monas in Merdeka Square commemorates Indonesia's struggle for independence and has an observation deck overlooking the city. Kota Tua preserves elements of colonial Batavia, including canals, former VOC warehouses and the old Town Hall. To the north, the historic Sunda Kelapa harbour is another attraction, which is still used by traditional inter-island vessels.

Culture

Jakarta's cultural life showcases a population influenced by long-standing migration from across Indonesia. Betawi traditions are part of local culture, along with cultural practices of communities from other parts of Indonesia.

Arts and festivals

Betawi performing arts include traditions such as tanjidor, lenong, and ondel-ondel. Lebaran Betawi is held as a public celebration and educational event intended to introduce and preserve Betawi culture. Condet was designated a Betawi cultural heritage area in 1976, but the designation was revoked in 1988. More recent plans have again promoted Betawi cultural activities there.

Wayang orang Bharata stages regular performances at the Bharata Purwa theatre in Senen, while Aula Simfonia Jakarta is a major venue for orchestral and Western classical music and is regularly used by professional ensembles. Taman Ismail Marzuki in Menteng hosts art exhibitions, dance and music performances, cultural programmes, and astronomy activities linked to the Jakarta Planetarium. Jakarta also hosts recurring cultural events, such as Jakarta Fashion Week and the Java Jazz Festival. International cultural institutions in the city include the Japan Foundation's Jakarta centre and Erasmus Huis, the Netherlands' cultural centre.

Cuisine

Betawi cuisine draws on cultural influences from other parts of the archipelago and from overseas, including Malay, Chinese, Arab, Portuguese, and Dutch traditions. One example is Soto betawi a Jakarta-area soto made with beef and offal in a broth containing coconut milk or cow's milk.

Wartegs are one prevalent example of a street-side eatery, as they serve simple, inexpensive meals to a wide range of Jakarta residents and workers. Several districts are known for concentrations of food vendors and restaurants. The Blok M area has developed into a popular culinary destination, particularly among younger visitors, while in Glodok, Chinese and traditional foods are part of Chinatown's appeal as a culinary destination.

Sports

Jakarta has hosted major international sporting events, including the 1962 and 2018 Asian Games, which it co-hosted with Palembang. The Gelora Bung Karno Stadium was also one of the venues for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup. The larger Gelora Bung Karno complex also contains an aquatic stadium, Istora indoor arena, tennis venues, football fields, and other sports facilities. Other major venues include the Jakarta International Stadium, a retractable-roof football stadium inaugurated in 2022, and the Jakarta International Velodrome in Rawamangun, which was used for the 2018 Asian Games.

Jakarta residents also use streets and public spaces for exercise and organised events. During Jakarta Car-Free Day, sections of Sudirman and Thamrin are closed to motor traffic and used for exercise and family activities. while the Jakarta Marathon has been held since 2013. The city has also hosted international motorsport, including the first Jakarta ePrix that was held in 2022 at the Jakarta International e-Prix Circuit at Ancol Beach.

Media and entertainment

Many Indonesian media organisations are headquartered in Jakarta but the concentration varies by medium, with television ownership especially Jakarta-centric and radio and newspapers being more broadly Java-centric. Its media history reaches back to colonial Batavia, where Bataviase Nouvelles began appearing in 1744 and was said to be circulating mainly among VOC employees and Europeans. It printed government edicts and advertisements, especially auction notices. In 1809, the City Printing Press was merged with the Castle Printing House to form the Landsdrukkerij (Government Printing Press).

Broadcasting also developed around institutions based in the capital. Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI), founded in 1945, is headquartered in Central Jakarta. Indonesian television began with Televisi Republik Indonesia's first broadcasts from Jakarta in August 1962. Jakarta's cultural venues host performances, concerts, exhibitions, and film screenings. Jakarta's creative economy also includes individual practitioners, community groups, and creative hubs.

Government and politics

Jakarta is a special autonomous region at the provincial level. Formerly a municipality of the West Java province, Jakarta became a "first-level region" (Daerah Tingkat I) in 1957, and later acquired the status of a Special Capital Region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI) in 1961. Under the city's 2024 special-region law, Jakarta remains the national capital until a presidential decree formalises the transfer to Nusantara.

Jakarta's provincial government is headed by a directly elected governor and vice governor, while the Jakarta Regional People's Representative Council has legislative, budgetary, and oversight roles. The administrative cities and the Thousand Islands administrative regency are headed by mayors and a regent appointed by the governor rather than elected locally. At the national level, Jakarta elects 21 DPR members from three electoral districts and four DPD members.

Jakarta derives most of its provincial revenue from local sources. In 2024, realised revenue was Rp72.95 trillion, including Rp50.74 trillion in locally generated revenue (pendapatan asli daerah, PAD) and Rp21.62 trillion in transfer revenue. Basic-service functions accounted for 56.33% of provincial spending, with education and health being the largest components. Jakarta also accounted for about half of Indonesia's cumulative subnational borrowing during the 2016–2021 period, with gross cumulative loans of Rp37 trillion.

Administrative divisions

Jakarta is divided into five administrative cities (kota administrasi) and one administrative regency (kabupaten administrasi). The administrative cities are Central Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, East Jakarta, and North Jakarta, while the Thousand Islands form the province's sole administrative regency. The five administrative cities were established by gubernatorial decree in 1966. In 2001, the Thousand Islands, then part of North Jakarta, was elevated to an administrative regency to improve public services and welfare and the management of the islands.

Each administrative city is headed by a mayor, and the Thousand Islands by a regent. The five cities and the regency are made up of districts (kecamatan). Unlike autonomous cities and regencies elsewhere in Indonesia, Jakarta's administrative cities and regency are non-autonomous parts of the provincial administration. City and regency councils assist their mayors or regent, but the units do not have their own DPRD.

Public safety

Policing in Jakarta is handled by Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Regional Police (Polda Metro Jaya), the regional police force of the Indonesian National Police. Its jurisdiction covers Jakarta and nearby areas including Depok, Tangerang city and regency, South Tangerang, and Bekasi city and regency. The force is led by a regional police chief with the rank of inspector general.

Jakarta Siaga 112 is a free, 24-hour emergency call service operated by the Jakarta's disaster management agency (BPBD). It integrates emergency-call services from provincial agencies, police and other organizations, forwarding reports on fires, medical emergencies, crime, disasters and other incidents to the relevant service.

Infrastructure

Transportation

The Jakarta metro area is heavily dependent on private road transport and experiences severe traffic congestion. Jakarta is served by the Jakarta Inner Ring Road and Jakarta Outer Ring Road, as well as toll roads linking the city with Tangerang, Cikampek, Bogor and other surrounding areas. To reduce congestion, Jakarta uses an odd-even licence-plate restriction system on 16 main roads.

Jakarta's public transport network includes Transjakarta, the Jakarta MRT, Jakarta LRT, Jabodebek LRT, KRL Commuterline, and the airport rail link. Since 2018, Jakarta has expanded fare and station integration and improved walking and cycling access to public transport. In 2021, Jakarta received the Sustainable Transport Award for work on integrated and resilient transport systems. The wider metropolitan area also has large daily commuter flows between Jakarta and Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi.

The primary airport for the metropolitan area is the Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, while Halim Perdanakusuma also accommodates commercial flights along with military purposes. Port of Tanjung Priok in North Jakarta is Indonesia's largest and busiest port, while the Muara Angke harbour provides boat services to the Thousand Islands.

Healthcare

As elsewhere in Indonesia, Jakarta's healthcare system includes public and private hospitals, clinics, and community health centres (puskesmas). In late 2012, then governor Joko Widodo introduced the Kartu Jakarta Sehat (Healthy Jakarta Card, KJS), a provincial programme intended to expand access to medical care through public health facilities. The programme merged into the national Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN) system in January 2014, administered by BPJS Kesehatan. A 2025 Jakarta planning document reported that universal health coverage in the city had reached 98.5% in 2023.

A 2023 assessment estimated that air pollution in Jakarta contributes annually to more than 10,000 premature deaths and 5,000 hospital admissions, as well as over 7,000 cases of adverse health effects among children. In the 2023 Indonesia Health Survey, 3.9% of residents aged 15 or over had doctor-diagnosed diabetes, the highest provincial rate in the country, while 31.8% of residents aged over 18 were obese.

Water supply

Jakarta granted two 25-year concessions to private water operators in 1997, PAM Lyonnaise Jaya and Thames PAM Jaya (renamed Aetra in 2007). Both companies operated in the eastern and western part of the city. PAM Jaya resumed full operation in 2023 after private management ended. The West Tarum Canal, which carries water from the Jatiluhur Dam and the Citarum River, supplied about 80% of Jakarta's bulk water as of 2014.

Piped-water coverage had reached about 82% of Jakarta's population by 2026. Historically, access was uneven, with poorer households facing barriers to direct network connections. Groundwater has long supplied a substantial share of the city's water needs, but heavy extraction is linked to land subsidence and salinisation. Waste-water contamination also affects shallow groundwater. In 2024, non-revenue water, the difference between water distributed and water billed to customers, stood at 46.2%, and the city's reduction programme prioritises rehabilitating ageing distribution pipelines.

International relations

As Indonesia's capital, Jakarta hosts foreign embassies and the ASEAN Headquarters. Several non-ASEAN countries also maintain ambassadors accredited to ASEAN. Jakarta has been a member of C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group since 2006 and is also a member of the ASEAN Smart Cities Network, a platform for cooperation on smart and sustainable urban development.

Twin towns – sister cities

Jakarta has established sister city relationships with a number of cities. They are:

• Bangkok, Thailand
• Beijing, China
• Berlin, Germany
• Casablanca, Morocco
• East Jerusalem, Palestine
• Hanoi, Vietnam
• Islamabad, Pakistan
• Istanbul, Turkey
• Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
• Kyiv, Ukraine
• Los Angeles, United States
• Maputo, Mozambique
• Mumbai, India
• Moscow, Russia
• Pyongyang, North Korea
• Seoul, South Korea
• Shanghai, China
• Tokyo, Japan

Jakarta also maintains other international cooperation arrangements. Jakarta's partnership with Rotterdam has included capacity-building and knowledge exchange on integrated urban water management. In addition to its sister cities, Jakarta cooperates with:

• Arkansas, United States
• Budapest, Hungary
• New South Wales, Australia
• New York, United States
• Osaka, Japan
• Paris, France
• Rotterdam, Netherlands

Notable people