Kalinjar Fort

History

Early history

By the Gupta period, Kalinjar had definitely become a site of Shiva worship: two terracotta seals from this period, found at Bhita near Allahabad, mention the name Kālañjara along with depictions of lingas, indicating the presence of a Shiva temple here. One of these seals mentions the name Bhadreśvara, which may be a reference to the Bhadreśvara temple at Kalinjar known from a later inscription.

A fragmentary inscription from the Chandi Darwaza at Kalinjar, possibly from the 8th or 9th century, refers to a temple called Bhadreśvara at Kalinjar, which it states was built sometime in the distant past by a king named Udayana. This king Udayana has been commonly assumed to be the ancestor of the Panduvanshī dynasty of Dakshina Kosala, but according to Peter Bishop it is probably instead a referenc e to the legendary king Udayana who is mentioned in the Bṛhatkathā as jumping to his death at Kālañjara after realizing the transitory nature of life. If this is the Udayana referred to in the inscription, then it would indicate that, by this period, there was a local tradition connecting Kalinjar and Udayana. It also indicates that the Bhadreśvara temple had a long history by this time. A couple of 9th-century inscriptions refer to the construction of a temple of Shiva and its subsequent visiting by pilgrims, which according to Syed Ali Nadeem Rezavi probably refers to the Nilakantha temple. Another undated inscription that appears to be from the pre-Chandela period mentions a family merchants, indicating "the presence of a wealthy trading community" at Kalinjar during this period.

A pre-Angkorian inscription from Prasat Preah Theat in Cambodia also refers to a linga called Kālañjaleśvara, which is probably a reference to Kalinjar.

The episode of the seven deer may be depicted at Kalinjar at a site called Mṛgadhārā, on the south side of the fort, where there are images of seven deer along with some Gupta-period inscriptions in the rock. These seven deer are also referred to in the local Kālañjaramāhātmya.

Medieval period

By the year 836, Kalinjar appears to have been under Gurjara-Pratihara control, but it changed several times in the mid-900s: first it was captured by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. Sometime before 954, the Chandela dynasty under Yashovarman had captured Kalinjar from the Rashtrakutas. Later bardic traditions claimed that Kalinjar was the Chandelas' place of origin, but contemporary inscriptions indicate that it was not their capital during this period. In inscription dated to 998, though, Yashovarman's son and successor Dhanga used the title Kālañjarādhipati, indicating that it had become his capital by then. From then on, Kalinjar is mentioned in almost every Chandela text or inscription.

Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the Chandela Empire twice during the reign of Vidyadhara. In 1019–20, Mahmud encountered the Chandela army after sacking new Pratihara capital of Bari. The accounts differ on the outcome: Nizamuddin Ahmad describes Vidyadhara's withdrawal without a battle, while Ali ibn al-Athir records a battle between the two armies. In 1022, Mahmud again invaded, besieging Gwalior Fort, whose Kachchhapaghata ruler agreed to pay tribute, and then advanced towards Kalinjar Fort. The Chandelas resisted the siege, forcing Mahmud to negotiate with Vidyadhara. The siege ended with an agreement involving elephants and other gifts, which Muslim sources describe as tribute, while some historians interpret the settlement as an exchange of gifts.

In the late 11th century, an inscription from the reign of Kirttivarman records that the king's guru, Śrīmūrti, was responsible for the construction of the maṇḍapa of the Nilakantha temple at Kalinjar.

The 1100s seem to have been relatively peaceful for Kalinjar, and a lot of construction took place. Various inscriptions also attest to Chandela feudatories making pilgrimages to the Nilakantha temple during this century. The final additions to the Nilakantha temple were probably made around the turn of the 13th century, during the reign of Paramardi, who left an inscription here dated to 28 October 1201.

This period of prosperity was interrupted in 1202 or 1203 (599 AH) when the Ghurid general Qutb ud-Din Aibak led an army to besiege Kalinjar. Paramardi gave stiff resistance, but was forced apply for treaty because of water shortage, but he died before treaty was finalised. But seeing the water receding, Ajaydeva started the resistance again, but was forced to surrender. Finally, on 27 April 1203, the fort's garrison surrendered. However, although Kalinjar was put under a Muslim governor, some of its temples supposedly destroyed, and the whole place probably looted, Paramardi's successor Trailokyavarman was able to quickly reconquer it within a couple of years. A 1205 inscription refers to Trailokyavarman with the title Kālañjarādhipati once again, indicating that it was under Chandela control by this point.

In 1233/34, the Ghurid commander Malik Nusratuddin Taisi was tasked with leading an expedition against Kalinjar. Although Taisi does not appear to have actually captured the fortress, his army plundered the town below and carried off a vast amount of wealth. Trailokyavarman appears to have maintained control of Kalinjar, and his successor Viravarman certainly did as well. The final Chandela ruler, Hammiravarman, is also mentioned as Kālañjarādhipati in an inscription dated to 1289 (VS 1346). After the Chandelas, Kalinjar came under the Bundela dynasty for an unknown length of time.

Early modern period

Mughal-Kalinjar conflicts

Around 1530, the Mughal emperor Humayun besieged Kalinjar. His association with the fort in that year is recorded by a Persian inscription carved on a rock below Patalganga. The inscription identifies Humayun as Padshah Ghazi and is dated to the last day of Rajab al-Murajjab in the year 936, corresponding to March 1530.

The campaign is also mentioned in the account of Gulbadan Begum, who states that Humayun, who was still a prince, undertook a campaign against Kalinjar during the final year of Babur's reign. Abu'l-Fazl gives a different chronological account and states that Humayun invested Kalinjar after ascending the throne. Since Humayun formally succeeded Babur in May 1531, this has led to discussion over whether he undertook two expeditions against Kalinjar.

Historians Qanungo and Iqtidar Alam Khan argued that a separate expedition to the Kalinjar region in 1531 was unlikely. The chronological discrepancy in Abu'l-Fazl's account has been connected with his description of Humayun's accession during Babur's illness. The Persian inscription indicates that Humayun had achieved his objective at Kalinjar in March 1530, making a return expedition in 1531 unnecessary. At the time of this siege, the king of Kalinjar was Rudra Pratap Singh of the Bundela dynasty. Rudra Pratap accepted the suzerainty of Humayun and became his tributary by paying tribute to him.

Siege of Kalinjar (1545)

In 1545, Sher Shah Suri besieged the Kalinjar, which was then held by Kirat Singh, the Bundela Chief. The reason for Suri's invasion was the shelter given to the Baghela by the Bundela King, because the Baghelas were supporters of Mughals. A major battle followed, during which the Sur army used gunpowder missiles.

Sher Shah died suddenly in an accident during the campaign. Despite his death, the combined Baghela and Bundela forces were defeated, and Kalinjar came under Sur suzerainty. Sher Shah's body was temporarily buried near Kalinjar before being transferred to Sasaram. His temporary grave was located on a small hillock known as Kalanjari, east of the fort.

An inscription on a pilaster of the mihrab of the Islam Shah Mosque indicates that the fort was subsequently placed under the authority of a noble named Khan-i 'Alam. The hill fort was also renamed Sherkoh.

After the death of Islam Shah Suri, the successor of Sher Shah, the Baghela King of Rewa, Ram Chandra occupied Kalinjar with the assistance of the Afghans sometime after 1554.

Mughal occupation under Akbar

The Mughal reoccupation of Kalinjar took place in 1569 during the reign of Akbar. On imperial orders, Majnun Khan Qaqshal, the governor of Manikpur, laid siege to the fort. Baghela king Ram Chand surrendered after being surrounded by the Mughal forces and facing a shortage of water within the fort.

Following the surrender, Majnun Khan Qaqshal was appointed the first Mughal qiladar of Kalinjar by Akbar. In 1581–1582, Shaikh Abul Faiz Faizi, the poet-laureate and brother of Abu'l-Fazl, served as the sadr of Kalinjar. In 1604–1605, Kalyan Das, son of Raja Todar Mal, held the position of qiladar of Kalinjar Fort. The available sources do not identify all of the qiladars who served between the terms of Majnun Khan Qaqshal and Kalyan Das.

Under Akbar, Kalinjar became one of the nine sarkars (districts) of the Subah of Allahabad. According to Abu'l-Fazl, the sarkar of Kalinjar consisted of ten mahals and one circle of dastur-ul-'amals. The mahals were Kalinjar and its suburbs, Ugasi, Ajaigarh, Sihunda, Simoni, Shadipur, Rasan, Khandeh, Mahoba and Maudha.

With the exception of Rasan, Abu'l-Fazl states that each mahal had a fort. Ugasi, Simauni and Kharelah (Khandah) had brick forts, while Sihunda, Shadipur, Mahoba and Maudha, in addition to Kalinjar itself, had stone fortifications.

The measured area of the sarkar of Kalinjar during Akbar's reign was recorded as 508,273 bighas and 12 biswa, while its estimated revenue was 23,839,470 dams. The number of retainers maintained by the zamindars was recorded as 18,100 infantrymen, 1,210 cavalrymen and 112 elephants.

Mughal sources from the reign of Jahangir contain relatively little information about Kalinjar and its fort. A collection of private papers from the mahal of Sihunda, preserved in the Department of History at Aligarh Muslim University, contains several farmans issued in the names of local officials. The only qiladar of Kalinjar specifically mentioned for Jahangir's reign is Munis, son of Mihtar Khan, who held the rank of 500 zat and 150 sawar.

During the reign of Shah Jahan, Saiyid Ahmad is recorded as the qiladar of Kalinjar in 1628–1629. In 1630–1631, he gained recognition for his role during the rebellion of Khan-i Jahan Lodi and for imprisoning the rebel's son. Shah Jahan subsequently granted him the title Janbaz Khan. Around 1638, Saiyid Ahmad Janbaz Khan was replaced by Abdullah Najm Sani as qiladar of Kalinjar, a position he held until 1639–1640.

Bundela uprising

Between 1674 and 1705, the Subah of Allahabad experienced a Bundela uprising. During the reign of Aurangzeb, Mughal control in the Kalinjar region weakened. The Bundela leader Chhatrasal repeatedly plundered the area around Kalinjar and ultimately occupied the fort in 1688–1689.

An inscription of Aurangzeb dated 1673 on the Alam Darwaza of Kalinjar Fort predates the Bundela uprisings and provides evidence of Mughal control of the fort before Chhatrasal's occupation.

Maratha Era

In the early 18th century, the fort was captured by the Peshwa Bajirao after defeating the Mughal general Bangash Khan of Allahabad. In order to stop the Mughals from entering Bundelkhand again, he established a Maratha light infantry huzurat of 5000 under the command of Sardar Ram Singh Bhatt, Yashwantrao Bhatt, Parshuram Bhau Bundela, Bhaskar Pandit, and Sheshrao Pant Bundela, all veterans of war and Maratha class one generals. In due course of time, the Marathas conquered the nearby territories and expanded to the Bengal frontiers. They inflicted a crushing defeat on Awadh ally Nawab of Rampur and Ala Vardi Khan.

The fort was used to levy chauth to nearby territories like Benares, Mirzapur, Pratapgarh, Kunda, and Bundela.

Colonial period

In 1803, the Peshwa was involved in direct skirmishes with the East India Company in which he was defeated. In the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon, Peshwa Bajirao II ceded Bundelkhand to the East India Company after his defeat in the Second Anglo-Maratha war. The fort came under the management of the East India Company in 1805–06. The Old Bhatt royalty was expatriated and was granted separate sanads of Kirwi, Attra, Chitrakut Mathond, and Khurand.

The fort was placed under the pre-Maratha constitution of Bundela - Jhijhotiya Chubes. However, during the first War of Independence in 1857, The Old Bhatta Aristocracy recaptured the fort driving Bundela back to Ajaygarh. In 1858, the British attacked the fort but the people at large resisted and fought a tough battle with Major Hugh Rose. A long drawn siege ensued in which almost 800 British and 3000 Indians were killed. This proved to be the toughest battlefield in Bundelkhand where English suffered maximum casualties. The English with the help of the states of Panna and Rewa captured this fort on 4 May 1858. The Last Bhatta Peshwas surrendered and were sent to Rewa as prisoners. Kalinjar subah was distributed in between Bundela, Rewa Solanki and Chaubes of Rajaula. The fort was decommissioned and its buildings were demolished, to prevent any further maratha garrisoning at Kalinjar, thus ending the legacy of this fort. The total chauth collection was estimated at 40 lakh shahi mohars.

In 1812, the British troops marched into Bundelkhand, and after a long battle, they were able to annex the fort. The British seizure of Kalinjar proved to be a great watershed, transferring the legacy of the old aristocracy into the hands of the new bureaucracy of officials, who showed their loyalty to British imperialism by damaging the captured fort. The damages caused to the fort can still be seen on its walls and open spaces.

Structures in the Fort

Following structures have been identified in the fort.

1. Alam /Alamgiri Darwaz
2. Ganesh Darwaza
3. Chandi/Chauburji Darwaza
4. Budhabhadra Darwaza
5. Gate leading to Balkhandi Mahadeo
6. Hanuman Darwaza
7. Hanuman Kund
8. Lal Darwaza
9. Bada Darwaza
10. Bhairon Kund
11. Sita Sej
12. Sita Kund
13. Patal Ganga
14. Pandu Kund
15. Budhbhadra talao (“Budhi Budha/Burhiya)
16. Pani ki Aman_ kund
17. Bhagwan Sej
18. Sidh ki Gupha
19. Koth Tirth
20. Raja Aman Singh Palace
21. Islam Shah mosque
22. Sanichar Talao
23. Qanati mosque I
24. Graveyard
25. Tomb
26. Tomb
27. ‘Rani Mahal’ & ‘Venkat Biihari Mandir’
28. Rang Mahal
29. Bijli Talao
30. Ram Katora talao (“Ramna”)
31. Dak Bungalow I
32. Taliyya Talao
33. Parmardi Deva Gate of Nilkantha Temple
34. Nilkantha Temple
35. Mrigdhara
36. Bhairon ka Jhirka
37. Panna Gate

Geography

The fort of Kalinjar is located on the hill of Kalinjar, which is an isolated, flat-topped outcrop of the Vindhya Range on the border between Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The hill is 244 m higher than the surrounding plain, at a total of 408 m above sea level. The village of Tarahati, which is also called Kalinjar, is located at the northern foot of the hill. The fort's main entrance is on the north, accessed through the town, although there is a second entrance on the fort's southeastern side.

Structures

Northern approach gateways

There are seven gates on the main approach to the fort, from the north. There would have once been several flights of stone steps leading up this approach, but most of these are no longer extant. The first flight, though, has mostly survived. It leads uphill to the first gate, the Alam Darwaza. An inscription at the top dates it to 1084 AH (1673 CE), during the reign of Aurangzeb. There is then a steep ascent, again with most of the stairs intact, to the second gate, the Ganesh Darwaza. This gate is named after a "coarse" image of the god Ganesha carved on its right side. Not far from the Ganesh Darwaza is the third gate, the Chandi Darwaza, which is a double gatehouse with four towers, hence the alternate name Chauburji Darwaza ("gate of the four towers"). There is also a structure here that was probably originally a guardhouse.

Some ways after the Chandi Darwaza, the uphill path bends sharply at almost a right angle. A path branches off here and goes downhill to the Balkhandi Mahadeo shrine; a "small, dilapidated gateway" called the Balkhandi Mahadeo Darwaza is on the way.

Back on the main path, there is the fourth gate, called the Budhabhadra Darwaza, and then the fifth gate, called the Hanuman Darwaza after a nearby carving of Hanuman. There is also a reservoir called the Hanuman Kund in this area, along with rock carvings of various deities. Continuing uphill, near the top of the ascent, is the sixth gate, called the Lal Darwaza because it is made of red sandstone. To the west of the Lal Darwaza is another reservoir called the Bhairava Kund, featuring a "colossal figure of Bhairava cut in the rock". Finally, not far from the Lal Darwaza is the Bara Darwaza, the final gate and the entrance to the fort proper.

Nilakantha Temple

The "most prominent structure in the fort" is the Nilakantha Temple, which is located in cave beneath an overhanging ledge below the ramparts, near the northwestern corner of the hill. The temple is approached through a post-and-lintel gateway known as the Paramardideva Darwaza, followed by a flight of steps leading down to the temple. At the front of the temple itself is an ornately carved but now dilapidated mandapa (pavilion) with eight pillars that would have once supported an octagonal roof. The cave's façade was also originally elaborately carved — for example, the sculptures of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on either side of the cave entrance, which are still in good condition — but much of this is now heavily damaged and effaced. Inside the cave shrine is a 1.15 m-tall linga, dark blue and depicted with three eyes.

To the right (south) of the temple is a "deep rock-cut reservoir" called the Svargarohana. To the right of this, in a niche in the cliff, in a pool of water, is a colossal statue of Kala-Bhairava, a wrathful form of Shiva, that stands about 7 m tall and 5 m wide. Bhairava is depicted here with 18 arms, holding a sword, an axe, a club, a shield, a bowl of blood, and some laddu, although the trishula (trident) that is common in depictions of Shiva is absent here. Next to the statue of Bhairava is a smaller one (about 1 m tall) of Kali.

Suri and Lodi period

Two mosques exist in the middle of the fort. One, the Islam Shah mosque, is just to the north of the Koth Tirth and is surrounded by a walled courtyard. There do not appear to have ever been any riwaq (arcades) around the mosque itself. The mosque is accessed through a gate on its east side, with a three-bay-deep liwan to the west. It has a flat roof, supported by square pillars, and at its rear (western) wall is decorated with five blind arches. The mihrab is undecorated and is located in the middle arch at the rear wall. The second mosque is a qanati (screen) mosque located at the southwestern corner of the Sanichar Talao tank.

A Muslim cemetery is also located in the fort's central area, with numerous undated graves. Two tombs are located at the northwestern corner of the cemetery, which are both square and topped with "Lodi-style" domes. The larger tomb has a mihrab on its west with an inscription in Persian.

Mughal period

The township around Kalinjar contains several medieval structures, including ruined havelis and mosques. According to Fuhrer, some of the older mosques, dating from the Mughal period beginning with the reign of Akbar, were in various states of decay and bore inscriptions recording the dates AH 1012 (1603 CE), 1122 (1710 CE), 1131 (1718 CE), and 1155 (1742 CE). To the south of the township, along the road leading to the fort, is the Rathod Mahal, traditionally said to have been built by Akbar in 1583. The larger tomb has a mihrab on its west with an inscription in Persian.

Bundela palaces

At least three palaces dating from the Bundela period are still extant at Kalinjar: the Raja Aman Singh Palace, the Rani Mahal, and the Rang Mahal. These structures follow the same general plan: a multi-storey building surrounding a square courtyard, with each storey having a wide eave (chhajja) and overhanging balcony, and each of the buildings' four corners is crowned with a chhatri (cupola). The Aman Singh Palace, at the southern part of the fort, currently serves as a site museum housing various sculptural and other remains that have been found at Kalinjar. Adjacent to the Aman Singh Palace is a tank called the Koth Tirth, the largest body of water in the fort, formed by cutting the underlying rock to make a depression to hold water. The Koth Tirth is surrounded by steps on all sides, and numerous pilgrims' inscriptions are carved into these steps, indicating that it was historically one of the most important for religious visits.

The Rani Mahal, located a bit to the north of the Aman Singh Palace in the central part of the fort, is currently in a dilapidated state. The Rang Mahal is located to the northwest.

Any secular structures from periods other than the Bundela period do not appear to have survived.

Transport links

Air

The nearest airport is at Khajuraho, 100 km (62 mi) away but has limited connectivity. Kanpur Airport which is well connected with metropolitan cities of India is 175 km (109 mi) and 4 hours drive from Kalinjar.

Rail

The nearest railway station is at Atarra 36 km (22 mi) away, on the Banda-Satna route, 65 km (40 mi) from Banda Railway Station.

Road

The Kalinjar fort is linked by road to all the important centres in the region with regular bus services. Some of the major road distances are: Chitrakoot, 78 km (48 mi); Banda, 65 km (40 mi); Khajuraho, 130 km (81 mi); and Prayagraj, 205 km (127 mi).

Tourism

According to the national Ministry of Tourism statistics based on ticket returns, Kalinjar Fort received some 128,834 visitors in 2024–25, of whom 128,447 came from India and 387 from other countries.