Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture

Stucco decoration was already used in ancient times in the region of Iran and the Greco-Roman Mediterranean. In Islamic architecture, stucco decoration appeared during the Umayyad period (late 7th–8th centuries) and underwent further innovations and generalization during the 9th century under the Abbasids in Iraq, at which point it spread further across the Islamic world and was incorporated into regional architectural styles. Examples of historic carved stucco decoration are found in Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan, and India, among other areas. It was commonly used in "Moorish" or western Islamic architecture in the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) and parts of North Africa (the Maghreb), since at least the Taifa and Almoravid periods (11th–12th centuries). In the Iberian Peninsula it reached a creative pinnacle in Moorish architecture during the Nasrid dynasty (1238–1492), who built the Alhambra. Mudejar architecture also made broad use of such decoration. The Spanish term yesería is sometimes used in the context of Islamic and Mudéjar architecture in Spain.

History

Origins and early development

The use of carved stucco has been documented back to ancient times. Stucco decoration was used in Iran, Central Asia and the Greco-Roman Mediterranean, though it was most strongly associated with Iranian architecture under the Parthians and Sasanians. As the Islamic conquests of the 7th century captured Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia and annexed them to the new Islamic empire, the long tradition of carved and painted stucco decoration in these regions was assimilated into early Islamic architecture. The Umayyad caliphs (661–750 AD) made use of carved stucco in their architecture, although it was of limited scope until the late Umayyad period. Examples of early 8th century stucco survive at Umayyad sites like Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (whose portal is now at National Museum of Damascus). As with other early Islamic sculptural decoration, the carved stucco decoration in the Umayyad period started out with an eclectic mix of styles originating in existing Classical, early Byzantine, and ancient Near Eastern artistic traditions.

It was only in the 9th century that a distinctively "Islamic" style of stucco decoration emerged. Under the Abbasids, based in Iraq, stucco decoration developed more abstract motifs, as seen in the 9th-century palaces of Samarra. Three styles are distinguished by modern scholars: "style A" consists of vegetal motifs, including vine leaves, derived from more traditional Byzantine and Levantine styles; "style B" is a more abstract and stylized version of these motifs; and "style C", also known as the "beveled" style, is entirely abstract, consisting of repeating symmetrical forms of curved lines ending in spirals. The Abbasid style became popular throughout the lands of the Abbasid Caliphate and is found as far as Afghanistan (e.g. Mosque of Haji Piyada in Balkh) and Egypt (e.g. Ibn Tulun Mosque).

Regionalization

As the Abbasid realm fragmented in the following centuries, architectural styles became increasingly regionalized. Towards the 11th century, muqarnas, a technique of three-dimensional geometric sculpting often compared to "stalactites", is attested across many parts of the Islamic world, often carved from stucco. It grew more popular from the 12th century onward.

Eastern Islamic lands

In the Greater Iranian region, a fairly distinctive style evolved from Abbasid models, employing stucco carved in high relief, especially in the decoration of mihrabs during the periods of Seljuk and Mongol domination. Among the most notable examples are the mihrab of Friday Mosque of Ardistan (c. 1135 or 1160), the Ilkhanid mihrab at the Great Mosque of Isfahan (1310), and the mihrab of the Pir i-Bakran Mausoleum (early 14th century). An earlier Mesopotamian tradition of muqarnas domes, as seen in the Imam ad-Dur Shrine near Samarra (1085–1090), was also passed on to Iran, with an important early example being the Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad at Natanz (1307–1308). The Iranian fashion of stucco decoration spread to other nearby regions. In Indo-Islamic architecture (in the Indian subcontinent) it was commonly either sculpted or used to apply painted decoration, or both, although its importance declined in the mid-16th century. In the Deccan, stucco was often used to create round architectural medallions with plant motifs. In Iran itself, high relief stucco carving grew less popular during the 15th century but then underwent a revival at the beginning of the 17th century, under the Safavids, when it was used in palace architecture.

Egypt

Fine stucco carving was still employed in Egypt during the Fatimid period (10th to 12th centuries). The earlier Samarra styles evolved to incorporate more naturalistic forms. In carved Arabic inscriptions, for example, flowers and leaves were added to embellish the letters. One of the finest examples from this period is the mihrab of the al-Juyushi Mosque. After this period, stucco decoration became less important and only occasional examples are attested under Mamluk rule, most of it in Cairo. While it was common enough under the Bahri Mamluks (13th to 14th centuries), it was largely supplanted by other forms of decoration afterwards. The existing stucco examples from this period are nonetheless of high quality, as seen in the mihrab of the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, dated to 1304. This monument also appears to demonstrate the influence or presence of craftsmen from other regions. The style of stucco decoration around the mihrab, for example, is reminiscent of Iranian stucco work in the style of Tabriz under the contemporary Ilkhanids. The lavish stucco decoration of the madrasa's minaret, on the other hand, appears to involve contemporary Maghrebi styles and craftsmanship alongside local motifs. Stucco decoration underwent a brief revival during the reign of Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), when it was used again in interior decoration.

Western Islamic lands

The Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century brought Islam to this region, which subsequently became known as Al-Andalus in Arabic. The establishment of a new Umayyad dynasty in Córdoba after 756, in the form of the Emirate of Córdoba (and the Caliphate of Córdoba after 929), led to the development of a distinctive style of Islamic architecture culminating in architectural masterpieces such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba. This style, popularly known as "Moorish" architecture, was also influenced by other Islamic architectural traditions further east. Archeological evidence near Kairouan in Tunisia and Sedrata in Algeria indicate that the Abbasid style of carved stucco was also introduced to the region of Ifriqiya. Initially, however, the Abbasid style had little influence on art in al-Andalus, where stucco began to be used for decoration in the later half of the 10th century.

The western Islamic architectural tradition continued to evolve over the subsequent Taifas period (11th century) and under the rule of North African empires, the Almoravids and the Almohads (11th to 13th centuries). Stucco became the most common medium of decoration in the 11th century. It was carved in high relief during the Taifas period (e.g. Aljafería Palace in Zaragoza) and during the Almoravid period (e.g. Qubba al-Barudiyyin in Marrakesh). The elaborate decorative style of the Almoravids was initially restrained under their successors, the Almohads, whose monuments attest to a more subdued but elegant decoration. After them, however, architectural decoration reached new heights of lavishness in Al-Andalus and the western Maghreb. The fashion evolved to favour stucco carved in shallow relief and to cover large surfaces along upper walls and under vaults. Starting in the 13th century, the Nasrid dynasty in Granada constructed the palace complex known today as the Alhambra, which is replete with rich stucco decoration. Stucco decoration was also used profusely in the monuments of the Marinid dynasty in North Africa, particularly in madrasas, a number of which have survived in Morocco. The al-'Attarin Madrasa in Fez, for example, built by the Marinids between 1323 and 1325, is one of the finest examples of this decoration. Comparable stucco decoration has also been found in the former palace of the Zayyanids in Tlemcen, Algeria.

Mudéjar decoration in Christian Spain

As Christian kingdoms progressively conquered the Iberian Peninsula, they continued to use the Islamic style, or "Mudéjar" style, in many of their new buildings. Moorish or Islamic-style plasterwork is found, for example, in 14th-century Castilian architecture such as the palace of Pedro I in the Alcázar of Seville, the Royal Convent of Santa Clara in Tordesillas (former palace of Alfonso XI), and the Jewish Synagogue of El Tránsito in Toledo. In these examples, Christian inscriptions and Castilian heraldry are also included against backgrounds of traditional Islamic arabesque and geometric motifs. An important tradition of decorative plasterwork grew in Toledo, which fell to Castilian control in 1085. Many examples of Mudéjar plasterwork throughout Castile can be attributed to craftsmen from this city. From the 11th century to the mid-14th century, such plasterwork continued to be dominated by motifs of Islamic origin that are similar to contemporary Almoravid, Almohad, or Nasrid art. After the mid-14th century, other motifs were added to this repertoire, such as vine and oak leaves inspired by Gothic art and, later, figures of people and animals.