Henotheism

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is often regarded as one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. Although Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, Zoroastrianism believes in lesser divinities known as Yazatas. These yazatas ("good agents") include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. According to some scholars, there are two issues that have long made it problematic to identify Zoroastrianism as true monotheism: the presence of lesser deities and dualism. But before hastening to conclude that the Amesha Spentas and the other yazatas compromise the purity of monotheism, we should consider that the other historical monotheisms too made room for other figures endowed with supernatural powers to bridge the gulf between the exalted, remote Creator God and the human world: the angels in all of them (whose conception in post-exilic Judaism was apparently developed after the pattern of the Amesha Spentas; Boyce and Grenet, 1991, 404–405), the saints and the Virgin Mary in several Christian churches, and the other persons of the Trinity in all of Christianity. Despite the vast differences with Zoroastrian theology, the common thread is that all these beings are subordinate to the Godhead as helpers or (in the case of the persons of the Trinity) co-equals, hence they do not pursue different interests and are worshiped jointly with the Godhead, not separately; therefore the supplicant's dilemma does not arise. Others such as Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.

Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".

Hinduism

Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion. Müller noted that the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God", alternatively as "one supreme Goddess", thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).

The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe. The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism. In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (~800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call nondualism or monism, as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism. An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the Rigveda, such as the Nasadiya Sukta. Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality. Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal, impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause."

Hellenistic religion

While Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, during the Classical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged. Often Zeus (or Jupiter) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing king and father of the Olympian gods. According to Maijastina Kahlos, "monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity" and "all divinities were interpreted as aspects, particles or epithets of one supreme God". Maximus Tyrius (2nd century CE) stated: "In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him." The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was "The One". Maximus, the polytheist grammarian of Madauros, even stated that "only a madman would deny the existence of the supreme God".

Canaanite religion and Yahwism

Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinical Judaism are emphatically monotheistic; however, its predecessor—the worship of Yahweh as it was practiced in ancient Israel during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE (Yahwism)—has been described as henotheistic or monolatric. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh, the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherah as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, each being worshiped within a specific region. Kurt Noll states that "the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom" and that the original god of Israel was El Shaddai. Deuteronomy 32:8-9 is often interpreted as depicting El assigning Yahweh to rule over Israel.

Several biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and were thought to possess the most power in the lands by the people who worshiped them and their sacred objects; their power was believed to be real and could be invoked by the people who patronized them. There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices. For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, the Philistines fret before the second battle of Aphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing the Ark of the Covenant, and therefore Yahweh, into battle. The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities; according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before the Babylonian captivity. The biblical scholar Mark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form of monolatry. Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with El and that acceptance of cults of Asherah was common in the period of the Judges. 2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power of Chemosh.

In Christianity

Paul the Apostle, in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, writes that "we know that an idol is nothing" and "that there is none other God but one". He argues in verse 5 that "for though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth", "but to us there is but one God". Some translators of verse 5 put the words "gods" and "lords" in quotes to indicate that they are gods or lords only so-called.

In his Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul refers to "the god of this world", which the 18th-century theologian John Gill interpreted as a reference to Satan or the material things put before God, such as money, rather than acknowledging any separate deity from God.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Some scholars have written that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) can be characterized as henotheistic but others have rejected that stance. Eugene England, a professor at Brigham Young University, asserted that LDS Presidents Brigham Young and Joseph Fielding Smith along with the LDS scholar B. H. Roberts used the LDS interpretation of 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as "a brief explanation of how it is possible to be both a Christian polytheist (technically a henotheist) and a monotheist". BYU Professor Roger R. Keller rejected descriptions of the LDS Church as polytheistic by countering, as summarized by a reviewer, "Mormons are fundamentally monotheistic because they deal with only one god out of the many which exist."

In their book, Mormon America: The Power and the Promise, Richard and Joan Ostling, wrote that some Mormons are comfortable describing themselves as henotheists. Kurt Widmer, professor at the University of Lethbridge, described LDS beliefs as a "cosmic henotheism". A review of Widmer's book by Bruening and Paulsen in the FARMS Review of Books countered that Widmer's hypothesis was "strongly disconfirmed in light of the total evidence". Van Hale wrote that "Mormonism teaches the existence of gods who are not the Father, Son, or Holy Ghost" and "the existence of more than one god [is] clearly a Mormon doctrine", but he also said that defining this belief system in theological terms was troublesome. According to Van Hale, henotheism might appear to be "promising" in describing LDS beliefs but is ultimately not accurate because henotheism was intended to describe the worship of a god that was restricted to a specific geographical area.

God Worshipping Society

The God Worshipping Society was a nontrinitarian form of Protestant Christianity, originating in the 19th century and incorporating elements of Chinese folk religion and Buddhism. It upheld God as the supreme deity. The God Worshipping Society held that there is only one Supreme Emperor God in the world, and therefore denied that the Heavenly Father and the Heavenly Brother Jesus are the same person. Thus, The God Worshipping Society maintained that no one, including the Heavenly Brother Jesus, could be called the Supreme Emperor God — only the Heavenly Father could be so addressed. The God Worshipping Society did not regard Jesus himself as the Supreme Emperor God Jehovah,Hong Xiuquan claimed that Jesus was the Heavenly Father's eldest son,whereas he himself was the Heavenly Father's second son. while Feng Yunshan and Yang Xiuqing were respectively regarded as the third and fourth sons. Wei Changhui, Xiao Chaogui, and Shi Dakai were respectively regarded as the fifth, sixth, and seventh sons. Xiao Chaogui is sometimes said to be the Heavenly Father's fifth son and also the "Imperial Son-in-Law". Xiao Chaogui's wife, Hong Xuanjiao, imitating the "Dingyou Strange Dream" composed by Hong Xiuquan, wove an almost identical mythological narrative. She claimed that in the Dingyou year, she had once fallen gravely ill, and while lying in bed as if on the verge of death, her soul ascended to heaven, where she heard an elder say to her: "Ten years from now, a person will come from the East to teach you how to worship God; you should sincerely obey." She claimed that this confirmed her identity as the Heavenly Father's daughter, though she did not claim to be the Heavenly Father's sixth daughter. Different documents mention different orderings of the so-called sons of the Heavenly Father. Some historians believe that the claims regarding the identities and ranking of Xiao Chaogui, Wei Changhui, and Shi Dakai as sons of the Heavenly Father were fabrications made by later generations. Hong Xiuquan's son was regarded as the nephew of the Heavenly Brother Jesus.

The God Worshipping Society held that the Heavenly Father Jehovah possesses a physical form, and even provided a detailed description of his appearance. In this depiction, the Heavenly Father's appearance closely resembles that of deities in traditional Chinese religious mythology. The God Worshipping Society also held that the Heavenly Father Jehovah is the patriarch of the Heavenly Kingdom, with a wife — the Heavenly Mother — as well as multiple other consorts. When Hong Xiuquan annotated Revelation Chapter 12, he interpreted the "woman" mentioned therein as the Heavenly Father's wife, the "Heavenly Mother," within The God Worshipping Society's doctrine, and claimed that both he and Jesus were born of the Heavenly Mother. He also claimed that other "Ah Ma" (Mothers) gave birth to other children, such as Feng Yunshan. When Hong Xiuquan annotated 1 John 5:6–8 in the Imperially Commissioned Former Scriptures, he interpreted "water and blood" as referring to the Heavenly Father's multiple wives, multiple sons, and multiple daughters. These daughters were considered to be Hong Xiuquan's sisters in heaven. The God Worshipping Society also held that the Heavenly Brother Jesus has a wife — the Heavenly Sister-in-Law. When Hong Xiuquan annotated Revelation, he claimed that "the wife of the Lamb is the Heavenly Sister-in-Law." Hong Xiuquan held that the Heavenly Brother had multiple children.

Japanese religions

In Japan, many Japanese new religions can be considered to be monotheistic (such as Tenrikyo) or henotheistic (such as Konkokyo).