Möng Mao

History

Early history

Little is known about the history of Möng Mao before the 13th century. Although Tai chronicles date its founding to as early as the 6th century, the differing details and dates in various local chronicles, the inclusion of mythological features, and a lack of corroborating evidence from external sources mean that these accounts are often regarded as legendary history. Many of these chronicles begin with the story of Hkun Lu (Hkun Lung) and Hkun Lai, who descended from heaven and established Möng Mao (or Kawsampi) in 568 (or 835 in some chronicles) and sent their children to rule over Tai chieftainships in the Nam Mao valley. Some chronicles instead begin with Chao U Ting. Jiang Yingliang believes that the Tai developed a stratified society in the Dehong area around the 10th century, consisting of four states, Möng Mao, Möng Yang, Möng Hsen Se, and Hsenwi, and that the center of power frequently shifted between these states and they were sometimes unified into a single state named Kawsambi.

Modern scholars and historians disagree on the early history, some believe that Möng Mao may have begun to emerge in the 6th century based on the legends of Hkun Lu and Hkun Lai, while others believe that there were no significant Tai polities in Yunnan and northern Myanmar before the Mongol invasions of Burma. According to the research of Jiang Yingliang, the lineage of the rulers of Möng Mao commenced in 1256, and this may have been when the polity emerged after the fall of Dali to the Mongol Empire.

Connection with Ahom history

The records of the Buranji in Tai-Ahom language tells the story of a Mao prince, Chaolung Sukaphaa who left Möng Mao Lung with his 9000 Tai Mao followers in 1215 AD, and established the Ahom kingdom in 1228 AD in modern day Assam. They were identified as the Mao section of Tai and were later called the Tai-Ahom. However, modern scholars disagree with the date of this history, and believes the founding of the Ahom kingdom should happen in the 14th century.

Related Buranji traditions place Sukaphaa's westward movement in the aftermath of an earlier Nara–Möng Mao invasion of the region, although these accounts do not provide a securely convertible date.

Relations with the Yuan dynasty

During this time, a patchwork of quarrelsome Tai polities existed in the land between Yongchang and Tagaung. They pledged allegiance to the Yuan dynasty as early as 1260. Multiple administrative divisions were set up in the region in 1276, and Möng Mao was designated as Luchuan Route.

From 1277–1303, the region was plagued with intense conflict and competition between the Pagan kingdom and Yuan dynasty. The Mongol-Yuan wanted to secure access to the Bay of Bengal, and waged two bloody wars in the region, the First Mongol invasion of Burma which toppled the Pagan kingdom, and the Second Mongol invasion of Burma which drove the Mongols out. The expulsion of Burmese power in 1286 and the shrinkage of Mongol-Yuan influence after the withdrawal of troops in 1303 afforded Tai leaders with the opportunity to reorganise and expand their power, and were now able to build new polities with less outside interference. Mongol authority diminished even further in 1330 when a succession crisis erupted in the Yuan court. The conflict spread to Yunnan, and rebel princes sought the military power of local leaders in exchange for titles and rewards. The rogue nobles were eventually suppressed, but Yunnan had now increasingly come under the control of local leaders, the Prince of Liang in Kunming and the Duan family in Dali increasingly overshadowed the central government.

Rise

Hsö Hkan Hpa (Chinese: Si Kefa) began the expansion of Möng Mao's territory in the 1330s–1340s, taking advantage of the good economic conditions and power vacuum in the region. Although chronicles disagree on the exact date of his accession to the throne, the most plausible date given is 1335. In Tai chronicles, Hsö Hkan Hpa gained the submission of neighbouring Tai states, including Hsenwi and Möng Mit, then gathered a large army to march against the governor of Yunnan. The Yuan court ordered local Yunnan authorities to subdue him and four military expeditions were sent in 1342, 1346, 1347 and 1348, but they ended in failure. Fearing further attacks, Hsö Hkan Hpa sent his son, the heir apparent (mansan 滿三), to the Yuan court to nominally recognize their authority. With the outbreak of the Red Turban Rebellions, there was little else the Yuan could do to subdue him, so he was appointed as the "Pingmian Pacification Commissioner", a title which recognized his control over new territories and further bolstered his prestige and legitimacy.

After the war with China, Hsö Hkan Hpa turned his attention west. He sent his brother Hkun Sam Lông west to conquer Assam, which surrendered without resistance and began paying tribute. However, believing his brother was conspiring against him, he poisoned and killed him on his return. Scholars argue that it was the Chutia kingdom of Assam which faced this invading army from Möng Mao. A similarly story regarding an invasion of the Chutia kingdom during the reign of one Lekhroi, by a military under a prince from East is prevalent among Deoris, a community of Chutia priests. The story concludes with the descendant of the Chutia king reinstated as a tributary by the invading army. The Sagaing kingdom sent an expedition against Möng Mao in 1356, possibly as a response to Möng Mao's expansion into Kale. Hsö Hkan Hpa then ordered expeditions against the Burmese kingdoms of Sagaing and Pinya. Shan raids were reported in 1359 and 1362, and finally the two kingdoms fell in 1364 and were completely devastated, leading to the rise of the Ava kingdom.

Hsö Hkan Hpa died in 1369. He was succeeded by his eldest son Si Bingfa (called Hsö Pem Hpa in Tai). In 1371, the subordinate states of Möng Yang and Kale went to war with each other. Si Bingfa ruled for 8 years and was succeeded by his son Tai Bian (Hkun Tai Pem Hpa). Tai Bian was a tyrant, and was killed by his uncle Zhao Xiaofa (Hkun Ngok Chyo Hpa) who established himself as ruler. A year later, Zhao Xiaofa was killed by bandits, and the people established his younger brother Si Wafa (Hsö Wan Hpa) as ruler.

Conflicts with the Ming dynasty

In 1374, the newly founded Ming dynasty sent a diplomatic mission to Burma, hoping to win over the states in the region. However, due to the roads being blocked in Annam, the envoys were recalled. When the Ming dynasty entered Yunnan in 1380, it quickly defeated the Mongol prince Basalawarmi and the Duan family in Dali, reaching the border of Möng Mao in 1382.

Initially, Möng Mao did not submit to the Ming dynasty and the Ming court did not recognize Möng Mao's control over neighbouring areas. Si Wafa attacked the Ming garrison at Jinchi (Baoshan) in 1382, but he was soon assassinated by one of his subordinates and Si Lunfa (Hsö Hom Hpa) became ruler of Möng Mao in his place. In 1382, Si Lunfa decided to submit to Ming authority, and was granted the tusi title of Pacification Commissioner of Pingmian. In August 1384 Si Lunfa sent a tribute mission to the Ming court surrendering the Yuan seal of commission. As a result he was promoted to Luchuan-Pingmian Pacification Commission with authority over military and civilian affairs.

The Tai ruler in Jingdong, E Tao, who was previously subordinate to Möng Mao, separately surrendered to the Ming court and was appointed as the "Native Prefect" of the region in 1384. Si Lunfa attacked Jingdong the following year to chastise him for his unfaithfulness, and E Tao fled for his life. A Ming expedition was sent against Si Lunfa in 1387, but they were defeated by Tai forces. The Ming believed that the Tai could not be trusted, and prepared military defenses all across the border regions, and diplomatically isolated Möng Mao. In 1388, Tai forces attacked the stockade at Moshale, but were defeated. Further Tai attacks were made on the Dingbian stockade, but these were also defeated. These attacks on Ming frontier outposts led to a large-scale Ming punitive expedition against Si Lunfa, resulting in another Ming victory. Si Lunfa surrendered in 1388, and was made to pay war reparations to the Ming forces.

Dao Ganmeng rebellion

In 1393 Si Lunfa invaded Ava. Despite the fact that he was ultimately defeated, Ava sent an envoy to the Ming seeking their help in deterring Mong Mao aggression. Acknowledging their position, the Hongwu Emperor sent a letter to Si Lunfa in 1396 warning him of retaliation if further acts of aggression were committed. Si Lunfa acquiesced to Ming demands. After Mong Mao stopped their military expansion, Si Lunfa began to welcome foreigners such as Buddhists and former Chinese soldiers into his people's traditional territory. Si Lunfa converted to Buddhism and gave gifts to the Chinese for bringing with them the technology of gunpowder and cannons. This greatly angered the traditional elements in his court and in 1397 Si Lunfa was deposed by the leader of an anti-foreigner faction, Dao Ganmeng, and fled to the Ming government for protection. After reaching the Ming capital, Si Lunfa enlisted the Hongwu Emperor's aid in returning him to power. The emperor, desiring peace in the southwest, agreed to his petition and allocated 100 taels of gold, 150 taels of silver, and 500 ding of paper money to his cause. The Marquis of Xiping, Mu Chun, was assigned to provide Si Lunfa military support and retake Möng Mao.

They returned to Yunnan and stayed in Baoshan while Mu Chun sent the commanders He Fu and Qu Neng with 5,000 troops to oust Dao Ganmeng. The expedition was met with initial success in battle, killing a Mong Mao chieftain, and routing his army, but arrived at an impasse when they failed to take a mountain stockade due to unfavorable terrain. He Fu relayed his situation to Mu Chun, who came to his aid with 500 cavalrymen, and in the midst of night advanced on the enemy position taking them by surprise. While they successfully took the stockade, Mu Chun died soon after from an illness and was replaced by He Fu, who captured Dao Ganmeng and installed Si Lunfa as ruler of Möng Mao once again in 1398.

Si Lunfa died in 1399, and was succeeded by his son Si Hangfa. The strength of Möng Mao waned, and principalities previously under its rule became independent. The Ming court took advantage of this situation by establishing 13 new states under its own rule, including Möng Yang (Mengyang), Hsenwi (Mubang), and Möng Ting (Mengding).

Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns

Si Hangfa was succeeded by his brother Si Renfa in 1413. Under Si Renfa, Möng Mao began a period of expansion into neighbouring regions to reassert control over previously owned territory. Si Renfa expanded west into Möng Yang in 1426, and made incursions into territory north of Möng Mao as far as Yongchang in 1428, but the Ming dynasty did not take any harsh measures against him yet. In the 1430s, conflicts between Möng Mao, Hsenwi, Ava, and various other states in the region intensified. The Ming planned a campaign against Möng Mao in 1434, but it was abandoned when Emperor Yingzong, an 8 year old, ascended the throne.

Si Renfa continued to expand, invading Nandian in 1437 and made further incursions into Ganyai, Tengchong, Lujiang, and Jinchi. Si Renfa appointed subordinate leaders to these neighbouring regions without asking the permission of the Ming court. At this point, the Ming considered Si Renfa unable to be reasoned with, and prepared a campaign, ordering Hsenwi to join the war against Möng Mao.

The first campaign was sent in 1438. One army pursued Si Renfa deep into his own territory, and was ambushed and destroyed by Si Renfa. After his victory, he became bolder and began expanding deeper into Ming territory, marching across the Salween river to invade places as far as and Jingdong and Menglian.

A second campaign was sent against Möng Mao in 1441. After an eight month long stalemate, Ming forces advanced deeper into Si Renfa's territory, and his capital was besieged. Möng Mao's capital fell in 1442, and Si Renfa fled to Möng Yang with his family. Imperial orders were given to Hsenwi and Ava to capture Si Renfa, with territory as a reward. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese king, but the Ming hesitated to keep their promise of territory, so they did not hand him over to the Chinese. Si Renfa's son, Si Jifa, continued operations in southwestern Yunnan and tried to beg for pardon from the Ming court for his father and himself. He was defeated in Mangshi, but, seeing the Ming troops leave the region, he reoccupied Möng Mao and began invading neighbouring principalities again.

A third campaign was sent in 1443. Möng Mao's capital was captured again in 1444, and its core region was partitioned into a new state, Möng Wan (Longchuan), with a new ruling dynasty. Si Renfa again retreated to Möng Yang, but the Ming did not immediately pursue him as they were not sure which side Hsenwi and Ava would take.

A fourth campaign was sent to oust Si Jifa in Möng Yang in 1449. Ming armies crossed the Irrawaddy river into Möng Yang, and defeated Si Jifa's strongholds. Though Si Jifa and his brother Si Bufa escaped, the Ming armies considered it a victory and left the capture of Si Jifa to the Burmese. Silu, a younger son of Si Renfa, became the new leader of Möng Yang, the Ming general, realizing he could not defeat Silu and his supporters, made a peace treaty with him. A stone tablet was erected on the Irrawaddy river which marked the boundary, it stated: "Not before the stone is rotten and the river has dried up are you allowed to cross [the Irrawaddy]." Silu agreed, and the Ming troops left.

Territory and Extant

According to the Ming dynasty account in the Baiyi Zhuan (1396), the territory of Möng Mao extends for 10,000 li. The text defines its boundaries as Jingdong to the east, Xitian Gula (India) to the west, Babai Xifu (Lan Na) to the south, and Tibet to the north. It was also bounded by Cheli (Sipsongpanna) in the southeast, Mian (Ava) in the southwest, Ailao (Baoshan) in the northeast, and to the northwest lies Xifan and Huihe (Northwestern Yunnan).

Tai chronicles describes a significantly broader extant, particularly during the expansion period of Hsö Hkan Hpa (Si Kefa). Military expeditions led by the general Sam Lông Hpa are credited with receiving the submission of territories across Burma right up to Arakan, annexing many important cities on the banks of the Chindwin valley and conquering a great portion of eastern Assam. The annals also claim Mao influence reached as far as into northern and central Siam, as well as territories on the Mekong river.

In Burmese records, there is a stone tablet inscription which describes Möng Mao's territory in 1442, during the reign of Thonganbwa (Si Renfa), and lists 21 states under his domain: Möng Mao (မိုင်မော), Möng Yang (မိုင်ညင်), Dimasa kingdom (သမုတ္တရာနာ ကုလာတိမသာ ခြေချင်ဝတ်), Kale (မိုင်ကာလေ), Manipur (ကသည်), Northern Kachin state (ကခြင်), Möng Ting (မိုင်တိန်), Möng Ti (မိုင်တီ), Möng Na (မိုင်နာ), Möng Myen (မိုင်မျည်), Möng Yo (မိုင်ညိုဝ်), Moeng Lü (မိုင်လိုဝ်), Möng Saw (မိုင်သော်), Möng Ya (မိုင်ယာ), Möng Cheng (မိုင်ခြိုင်), Möng Hkwan (မိုင်ခုန်), Möng Yue (မိုင်ယိုဝ်), Linxiang (မိုင်ထုန်), Xuangang Township (မိုင်ခြေည်), Ning'er (မိုင်မေည်). Two locations (မိုင်ပြင်) and (ခြအိုဝ်) are unidentified.

Government

Political structure

The political organization of the kingdom consisted of hierarchical officials who controlled units of people. This form of administration also bore a resemblance to the governing systems used in other Tai kingdoms such as Sipsongpanna (Moeng Lü), Lan Na, and Lan Xang. The Baiyi Zhuan, compiled by two Ming envoys who visited the polity in 1396, offers an elaborate contemporary description the socialpolitical structure, as scholar Chris Baker observes:

The earliest account of [Tai] political structure, in the Bai-yi zhuan, suggests a complex of military, administrative, legal and cultural techniques to manage a varied population. The Bai-yi zhuan also hints at the famous capacity of the Tai muang to absorb others by emulation.

— Chris Baker

According to the account, the paramount ruler of Möng Mao was referred to as "Zhao" (ᥓᥝᥲ). In Tai literature, this title is also written as "Saopha" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥜᥣᥳ), meaning "Lord of Heaven". Under him stood the "Zhao Meng" (ᥗᥣᥝᥳ ᥛᥫᥒᥰ) who exercises general control over administrative affairs. The subsequent ranks below the Zhao Meng are the "Zhao Lu" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥘᥧᥰ), who controls over 10,000 people, the "Zhao Gang" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥐᥣᥒᥰ), who controls over 1,000 people, the "Zhao Bo" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥙᥣᥐᥱ), who controls 100 people, the "Zhao Ha-si" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥔᥤᥙᥴ), who controls 50 people, and the "Zhao Zhun" (ᥓᥝᥲ ᥓᥧᥛᥲ), who controls 10 people. In the event of war and military deployments, a separate official called the "Zhao Lu-ling" is appointed to command troops in conjunction with the Zhao Meng. All officials, regardless of rank, are allocated territory in which they are permitted to levy corvee labour and taxes.

Modern scholars believe the Tai adopted much of their political structure from Yuan-Chinese administration. Additionally, Möng Mao's state organization has also been analyzed within the framework of the mandala political model, though with varying interpretations. In Jon Fernquest's research of the state-integration level of Möng Mao, due to the endemic warfares, fluctuating degree of control, and cyclical patterns of unity within its domain, he models the polity as a network of chieftainships that joined together occasionally for a common purpose in tenuous and changing confederations. Using Fernquest's conclusion, Ken Kirigaya compares Möng Mao with other mandala states of Sukhothai and Lan Na. Some scholars prefer to describe it as the Shan federation, Mao Shan federation or the Tai federation of Moeng Mao.

Others believe the Tai Mao rulers practiced a system of feudal land grants, dividing and redistributing conquered territories to loyal subordinates. For example, during Si Kefa's (Hsö Hkan Hpa) reign, he appointed Sao Tao Hkai to govern Möng Mit with the requirement of sending annual tribute to Möng Mao, appointed Dao Ganmeng (Tao Kang Mong) as ruler of Möng Tu in Hsenwi, and ordered Da Menfa to manage Linmadian village (Zhenkang). In the reign of Si Lunfa (Hsö Hom Hpa), Han Nuan was appointed Zhao Lu of Möng Ting, and his position was later transferred to govern Hsenwi, while Dao Suandang became Zhao Lu of Möng Bò (Weiyuan). Dao Jingfa, originally the Zhao Gang of Möng Ting, was promoted by Si Lunfa to Zhao Meng of Möng Tong (Wandian).

Military

According to the Baiyi Zhuan, Möng Mao maintained no formal distinction between military and civilian populations. When assembled, people became troops, and when dispersed, they return to being civilians. During wartime, every three to five persons will provide one soldier. The strongest individuals are selected as principal soldiers, called the "Xi-la" (锡剌), who controlled troops and defend against the enemy, while the others served as supply carriers. For this reason, while a military force may comprise 50,000-60,000 personnel, the fighters would number less than 20,000.

The military primarily utilizes war elephants as their main force, in which during combat, soldiers would secure themselves on to the top of elephants. Tactical formation were limited, with military columns lacking formal marshaling and coordination between front and rear units. For protection, the troops wore leather headwear and armours of bronze or iron. For weapons, they used long spears and crossbows, but are generally not proficient with bow and arrows.

Legal enforcement

Möng Mao did not have written legal statutes, and instead relied on customary law. For minor crimes, a fine is imposed, while serious crimes resulted in the death penalty. The various methods of execution were lynching, elephant trampling, drowning, or strangulation by cords, though the practice of whipping were absent. Engaging in adultery and theft also had punishments severe enough that the Ming observers noted the people would not dare to commit such offenses.

Capital city

Möng Mao had various capitals located around the Nam Mao valley (modern Ruili and its adjacent border regions in Myanmar), and Selan was the capital which was most often adopted. According to the Hsenwi Chronicle, Selan had been built by Hsö Hkan Hpa (c. 1335), and was fortified with strong walls and deep moats.

The remains of these old capitals were described by James George Scott in the early 20th century:

The modern Sè Lan is a village of no great size. It stands on the highest point of an irregular four-sided plateau, which rises to a height of 260 or 300 feet above the valley level and is about a square mile in area. This plateau is completely surrounded by an entrenched ditch, which is in many places 40 or 50 feet deep. There no doubt was once also a wall, but this has completely mouldered away. A few miles off is Pang Hkam, also an old Mao capital, and also with the remains of an earthen parapet and ditch enclosing an even larger area. In the neighbourhood are a number of bare detached hills surrounded by formidable entrenchments.

— James George Scott

List of Monarchs

The various versions of the Möng Mao Chronicle provide the lineage of Möng Mao rulers. The Shan chronicle tradition, recorded very early by Elias (1876), provides a long list with the first ruler of Möng Mao dating from 568 A.D. The dates in Elias for later rulers of Möng Mao do not match very well the dates in Ming dynasty sources such as Ming Shilu (Wade, 2005) and Baiyi Zhuan (Wade, 1996) which are considered more reliable from the time of the ruler Si Kefa. Bian-zhang-ga (1990), translated into Thai by Witthayasakphan and Zhao Hongyun (2001), also provides a fairly detailed local chronicle of Möng Mao.