Mountain Jews

Economy

While elsewhere in the Russian Empire, Jews were prohibited from owning land (excluding the Jews of Siberia and Central Asia), at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, Mountain Jews owned land and were farmers and gardeners, growing mainly grain. Their oldest occupation was rice-growing, but they also raised silkworms and cultivated tobacco and vineyards. Mountain Jews and their Christian Armenian neighbors were the main producers of wine, as Muslims were prohibited by their religion from producing or consuming alcohol. Judaism limited some types of meat consumption. Unlike their neighbors, the Jews raised few domestic animals, although tanning was their third most important economic activity after farming and gardening. At the end of the 19th century, 6% of Jews were engaged in this trade. Handicrafts and commerce were mostly practiced by Jews in towns.

The Soviet authorities bound the Mountain Jews to collective farms, but allowed them to continue their traditional cultivation of grapes, tobacco, and vegetables; and making wine. In practical terms, the Jews are no longer isolated from other ethnic groups.

With increasing urbanization and sovietization in progress, by the 1930s, a layer of intelligentsia began to form. By the late 1960s, academic professionals, such as pharmacists, medical doctors, and engineers, were common in the community. Mountain Jews worked in more professional positions than did Georgian Jews, though less than the Soviet Ashkenazi community, who were based in larger cities of Russia. A sizable number of Mountain Jews worked in the entertainment industry in Dagestan. The republic's dancing ensemble "Lezginka" was led by Tankho Israilov, a Mountain Jew, from 1958 to 1979.

Religion

Mountain Jews are not Sephardim (from the Iberian Peninsula) nor Ashkenazim (from Central Europe) but rather of Persian Jewish origin, and most of them follow Edot HaMizrach customs. Mountain Jews tenaciously held to their religion throughout the centuries, developing their own unique traditions and religious practices. Mountain Jewish traditions are infused with teachings of Kabbalah and Jewish mysticism. Mountain Jews have also developed and retained unique customs different from other Jews, such as govgil, an end-of-Passover picnic celebration involving the whole community.

Mountain Jews have traditionally maintained a two-tiered rabbinate, distinguishing between a rabbi and a dayan. "Rabbi" was a title given to religious leaders performing the functions of liturgical preachers (maggids) and cantors (hazzans) in synagogues ("nimaz"), teachers in Jewish schools (cheders), and shochets. The dayan was a chief rabbi of a town, presiding over beit dins and representing the highest religious authority for the town and nearby smaller settlements. Dayans were elected democratically by community leaders.

The religious survival of the community was not without difficulties. In the prosperous days of the Jewish valley (roughly 1600-1800 CE), the spiritual center of Mountain Jews centered on the settlement of Aba-Sava. Many works of religious significance were written in Aba-Sava. Here, Elisha ben Schmuel Ha-Katan wrote several of his piyyuts. Theologian Gershon Lala ben Moshke Nakdi, who lived in Aba-Sava in 18th century, wrote a commentary on the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. Rabbi Mattathia ben Shmuel ha-Kohen wrote his kabbalistic essay "Kol Hamevaser" in Aba-Sava. With the brutal destruction of Aba-Sava in roughly 1800 CE, however, the religious center of Mountain Jews moved to Derbent.

Prominent rabbis of Mountain Jews in the nineteenth century included: Rabbi Gershom son of Rabbi Reuven of Qırmızı Qəsəbə, Shalom ben Melek of Temir-Khan-Shura (today known as Buynaksk), Chief Rabbi of Dagestan Jacob ben Isaac, and Rabbi Hizkiyahu ben Avraam of Nalchik, whose son, Rabbi Nahamiil ben Hizkiyahu, later played a crucial role in saving Nalchik's Jewish community from the Nazis. In the early decades of the Soviet Union, the government took steps to suppress religion. Thus, in the 1930s, the Soviet Union closed synagogues belonging to Mountain Jews. The same procedures were implemented among other ethnicities and religions. Soviet authorities propagated the myth that Mountain Jews were not part of the world's Jewish people at all, but rather members of the Tat community that settled in the region. Soviet antisemitic rhetoric was intensified during Khrushchev's rule. Some of the synagogues were later reopened in the 1940s. The closing of the synagogues in the 1930s was part of a communist ideology that resisted religion of any kind.

At the beginning of the 1950s, there were synagogues in all major Mountain Jewish communities. By 1966, reportedly six synagogues remained; some were confiscated by the Soviet authorities. While Mountain Jews observed the rituals of circumcision, marriage and burial, as well as Jewish holidays, other precepts of Jewish faith were observed less carefully. Yet, the community's ethnic identity remained unshaken despite the Soviet efforts. Cases of intermarriage with Muslims in Azerbaijan or Dagestan were rare as both groups practice endogamy. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Mountain Jews experienced a significant religious revival, with increasing religious observance by members of the younger generation.

Educational institutions, language, literature

Mountain Jews speak Judeo-Tat, also called Juhuri, a form of Persian; it belongs to the southwestern group of the Iranian division of the Indo-European languages. Judeo-Tat has Semitic (Hebrew/Aramaic/Arabic) elements on all linguistic levels. Among other Semitic elements, Judeo-Tat has the Hebrew sound "ayin" (ע), whereas no neighboring languages have it. Until the early Soviet period, the language was written with semi-cursive Hebrew alphabet. Later, Judeo-Tat books, newspapers, textbooks, and other materials were printed with a Latin alphabet and finally in Cyrillic, which is still most common today. The first Judeo-Tat-language newspaper, Zakhmetkesh (Working People), was published in 1928 and operated until the second half of the twentieth century.

Originally, only boys were educated through synagogue schools. Starting from the 1860s, many well-off families switched to home-schooling, hiring private tutors, who taught their sons not only Hebrew, but also Russian. In the early 20th century, with the advance of sovietization, Judeo-Tat became the language of instruction at newly founded elementary schools attended by both Mountain Jewish boys and girls. This policy continued until the beginning of World War II, when schools switched to Russian as the central government emphasized acquisition of Russian as the official language of the Soviet Union.

The Mountain Jewish community has had notable figures in public health, education, culture, and art.

In the 21st century, the Russian government started encouraging the revival of cultural life of minorities. In Dagestan and Kabardino-Balkaria, Judeo-Tat and Hebrew courses have been introduced in traditionally Mountain Jewish schools. In Dagestan, there is support for the revival of the Judeo-Tat-language theater and the publication of newspapers in that language.

Culture

Military tradition

"And we, the Tats
We, Samson warriors,
Bar Kochba's heirs...
we went into battles
and bitterly, heroically
struggled for our freedom

-"The Song of the Mountain Jews"

Mountain Jews have a military tradition and have been historically viewed as fierce warriors. Some historians suggest that the group traces its beginnings to Persian-Jewish soldiers who were stationed in the Caucasus by the Sasanian kings in the fifth or sixth century to protect the area from the onslaughts of the Huns and other nomadic invaders from the east. Men were typically heavily armed and some slept without removing their weapons.

Dress

Over time the Mountain Jews adopted the dress of their Muslim neighbors. Men typically wore chokhas and covered their head with papakhas, many variations of which could symbolize the men's social status. Wealthier men's dress was adorned with many pieces of jewelry, including silver and gold-decorated weaponry, pins, chains, belts, or kisets (small purse used to hold tobacco or coins). Women's dress was typically of simpler design in dark tones, made from silk, brocade, velvet, satin and later wool. They decorated the fabric with beads, gold pins or buttons, and silver gold-plated belts. Outside the house, both single and married women covered their hair with headscarves.

Cuisine

Mountain Jewish cuisine absorbed typical dishes from various peoples of the Caucasus, Azerbaijani and Persian cuisine, adjusting some recipes to conform to the laws of kashrut, with a great emphasis on using rice (osh) to accompany many of their dishes. Typical Mountain Jewish dishes include:

• Chudu – A type of meat pie.
• Shashlik – skewered meat chunks, such as lamb chops or chicken wings.
• Dolma – vegetables such as grape leaves, onions, peppers, tomatoes and eggplants that are stuffed with minced meat, then boiled.
• Kurze or Dushpare – Dumplings that are boiled and then fried in oil on both sides until golden brown and crispy.
• Yarpagi – Cabbage leaves stuffed with meat and cooked with quince, lamb riblets and a sauce made of dried sour plums (alcha).
• Gitob
• Ingar – Square shaped dumpling soup with Meat (Chicken/Beef/Lamb), sometimes with tamarind paste added to the soup.
• Ingarpoli – Dumplings served with tomato paste flavored minced meat on top.
• Dem Turshi – Rice soup flavoured with garlic, dried mint and dried cherry plums.
• Tara – Mallow stew with pieces of meat, dried cherry plum, garlic, dill and clintaro. In Baku sometimes it’s made vegan with chestnuts instead of meat.
• Nermov or Gendumadush – Chicken or other meat stew with wheat and beans, traditionally cooked overnight from Friday to Saturday.
• Dapchunda Osh – Rice pilaf with lamb chunks, qazmaq and dried fruits such as raisin, apricots and golden plums.
• Osh Lobeyi – Rice pilaf with cowpeas and smoked fish.
• Osh Kyudu – Pumpkin Rice pilaf with carrots, pumpkin, qazmaq and dried fruits, traditionally served for Hannukah.
• Osh Mast – White rice with Mast, a variety of yogurt, on top.
• Shomo-Kofte bebeyi – Meatballs made from minced meat and onions cooked alongside potatoes, sometimes served on rice (osh).
• Buglame – (curry like stew of fish or chicken eaten with rice (osh).
• Eshkene – Persian soup, made of Lamb, potatoes, onions, eggs, dried cherry plums, cinnamon and herbs such as cilantro, green onions, parsley and spinach, prepared for Passover.
• Yakhni Nisonui – The Derbendi variation of eshkene consists of lamb, potatoes, onions, eggs, dried cherry plums, cinnamon but without herbs, made on the first day of Passover.
• Yakhni Nakhuti – A soup made of lamb, chickpeas, potatoes and dried plums cooked in a tomato paste based soup. served with rice.
• Hoshalevo – (honey-based treats made with sunflower seeds or walnuts) typically prepared for Purim.
• Bischi – Fried dough topped with hot honey syrup, typically prepared for Purim.
• Hallegh – made with mixture of apples, walnuts, honey, raisins, cinnamon and wine, a ritual dish prepared for Passover.
• Pakhlava
• Fadi-shiri – A milk cake made of flour, eggs, butter, milk, sugar, turmeric, raisins, walnuts, sesame seeds and poppy seeds, served during Shavuot.
• Pertesh – A dish consist of a Lavash bread that is soaked in honey based syrup and filled with a milk porridge inside, served for Shavuot.
• Khashil – Sweet porridge made of flour, butter, honey, cinnamon and turmeric with a crunchy crust.
• Lovush Roghani
• Khashlama – Boiled chunks of meat, usually beef, veal, or lamb, as well as vegetables such as bell peppers, potatoes, tomatoes and onions, in hot water.
• Khoyagusht – Meat pie made of eggs, turmeric, slow cooked meat (usually sheep or goat) and its broth, often considered to be the "national dish" of the Mountain Jews.
• Khoyaghusht Kyargi – Khoyagusht with chicken instead of red meat.
• Khoyahusht Bodimjon – Khoyagusht with eggplants instead of meat, without turmeric.
• Nukhorush – Beef or Lamb cooked with quince, raisins, dried golden prunes, dried apricots, chestnuts and flavoured with turmeric, sometimes served alongside rice (osh).
• Nukhorush marjumeki – Lentil stew with potatoes, zucchini, onions, and carrots flavoured with cilantro, dill, cumin and turmeric.
• Gayle or Khayle – A dish made of herbs, onion and eggs.
• Dugovo – A soup made by cooking yogurt, with a little bit of rice, a variety of fresh herbs such as dill, mint, and coriander.
• Aragh – a strong alcoholic drink made of distilled fermented mulberry juice. It can be made from both black and white mulberries.
• Asido
• Harissa – A dish of Mountain Jews from the northern regions in Dagestan made of Meat, Potatoes and dried cherry plums cooked in tomato sauce, traditionally used in weddings.

Music

The music of Mountain Jews is mostly based in the standard liturgy, for prayer and the celebration of holidays. Celebratory music played during weddings and similar events is typically upbeat with various instruments to add layers to the sound.

Notable Mountain Jews

• Omer Adam, Israeli singer
• Udi Adam, Israeli general
• Yekutiel Adam (1927–1982), former Deputy Chief of Staff of the Israeli Defense Forces
• Albert Agarunov (1969–1992), Azerbaijani soldier
• Yakov Agarunov (1907–1992), Soviet poet and playwright
• Efrem Amiramov (1956–2025), Soviet/Russian singer and poet
• Ilya Anisimov (1862–1928), Russian ethnographer, ethnologist and engineer
• Astrix, producer of trance music
• Djumshud Ashurov (1913–1980), Soviet composer
• Daniil Atnilov (1913–1968), Soviet poet
• Hizgil Avshalumov (1913–2001), novelist, poet and playwright
• Yuno Avshalumov (1934–1981), Soviet composer, conductor, and teacher
• Mishi Bakhshiev (1910–1972), Soviet writer and poet
• Manuvakh Dadashev (1913–1943), Soviet poet
• Mikhail Dadashev (1936), Soviet and Russian writer
• Gyulboor Davydova (1892–1983), Soviet winegrower
• Mikhail Gavrilov (1926–2014), Soviet writer and poet
• Sarit Hadad, Israeli singer
• Zarakh Iliev (born 1966) Russian businessman
• Gavril Abramovich Ilizarov (1921–1992), Soviet physician (Mountain Jewish father, Ashkenazi Jewish mother)
• Raziil Ilyaguev (1944–2016), stage actor and artistic director
• Telman Ismailov, businessman
• Tankho Israelov (1917–1981), dancer, choreographer
• Sergey Izgiyayev (1922–1972), author, translator, and songwriter
• Mozol Izrailova (1955), actress
• Amaldan Kukullu (1935–2000), Soviet/Russian poet, storyteller, folklorist
• Lev Manakhimov (1950–2021), choreographer and director
• Bikel Matatova (1928–2013), Soviet and Israeli actress of the Judeo-Tat Theatre
• Tamara Musakhanov (1924–2014), Soviet sculptor and ceramist
• Mushail Mushailov (1941–2007), Soviet/Russian artist and teacher
• God Nisanov, Russian businessman
• Gennady Simeonovich Osipov (1948–2020), Russian scientist and professor
• Iosif Prigozhin, Russian music producer
• Lior Refaelov, Israeli football player
• Akhso Shalumova (1907–1985), first Soviet stage actress of the Judeo-Tat Theatre
• Sasson Ifram Shaulov, popular Israeli singer and songwriter
• Zoya Semenduyeva (1929–2020), Soviet and Israeli poet
• Robert Tiviaev, Israeli politician, former member of the Knesset
• Israel Tsvaygenbaum, Russian-American artist (Ashkenazi Jewish father, Mountain Jewish mother)
• Anatoly Yagudaev (1935–2014), sculptor
• Yaffa Yarkoni (1925–2012), Israeli singer, winner of the Israel Prize in 1998 for Hebrew song
• German Zakharyayev (born 1971), businessman, vice-president of the Russian Jewish Congress
• Zhasmin (née Sara Manakimova), Russian pop singer (2005)