Naqada III

It is the period during which the process of state formation, which began in Naqada II, became highly visible, with named kings heading powerful polities. Naqada III is often described as the Protodynastic Period of Egypt, and the later part of Naqada III is usually associated with Dynasty 0 to reflect the presence of kings at the head of influential states, although, in fact, the kings involved would not have been a part of a dynasty. In this period, those kings' names were inscribed in the form of serekhs on a variety of surfaces including pottery and tombs. The period was characterized by constant conflict with the people of the Nile Delta, probably for the control of valuable trade routes with the Levant.

The periodization of the Naqada Culture was originally developed by Flinders Petrie in the early 1900s. The defined periods have evolved since then and Naqada III is now further subdivided into IIIA1, IIIA2, IIIB1, IIIB2, IIIC1, IIIC2, and IIID subperiods.

History

The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the Early Dynastic Period. Furthermore, it is during this time that the Egyptian language was first recorded in hieroglyphs. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern Canaan during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as colonies or trading entrepôts.

Archaeologists Pierre de Miroschedji and Moain Sadeq hypothesise that the Egyptian activity in the Levant of this period can be classified in three parts: an area of permanent settlement including Tell es-Sakan (which may have been the administrative centre) and En Besor; an area extending north along the coast of seasonal habitation, and beyond this to the east and further north was an area of interaction between the Egyptians and the Canaanites.

State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the Nile. Centuries of conquest then reduced Upper Egypt to three major states: Thinis, Naqada, and Nekhen. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered Lower Egypt. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at Abydos in the Umm el-Qa'ab cemetery.

Early Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie were proponents of the Dynastic race theory which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin, but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.

The "City of Gold'

"Naqada" (Nubt) literally means "City of Gold", reflecting the exceptional wealth of the eastern desert region in gold, and the strategic position of Naqada and its facing town of Koptos for the commerce of that gold. The utilization of precious metals from the Eastern Desert, and the development of floodplain agriculture creating surpluses which could generate demand for a variety of crafts, made the region especially advanced in term of economic specialization and diversification, much more advanced than the regions of contemporary Lower Egypt. Imports from Mesopotamia appear to have been quite intensive during the late Gerzean period (late Naqada II), and correspond to the Protoliterate b and c cultures of Mesopotamia (Uruk period).

Naqada was at the center of the developing trade of gold from the eastern desert of Egypt. This may have stimulated the direct involvement of Mesopotamian traders, who, accompanied by artists and various skilled personnel, may have introduced Mesopotamian styles and practices. The exploitation of gold may also have stimulated the development of the first organized proto-state structures in Egypt.

Gold production is documented through the creation of gold artifacts, going as far back as about 3500 BC. The extraction of gold occurred mainly in the older and younger granites of the Eastern Desert, through open pits and moderate underground digging.

Golden figurines

In 2006, a deposit of "gold foil, carnelian and ostrich eggshell beads of a necklace, and two large flint knives" was found at Tell el-Farkha, on the Eastern Kom. When reconstructed the gold fragments formed two statuettes of nude men with lapis lazuli eyes. The taller is around 60 cm tall, and the shorter about 30 cm. Both figures are depicted as bald and beardless with protruding ears, finely detailed finger- and toenails, and exaggerated phalluses. Each is also equipped with a large, upward-facing phallus sheath. The larger figure also has a beaded necklace and a decorative carved band on its penis sheath. The core of the statuettes, now entirely decomposed, was likely made of wood, which was covered with thin sheets of gold fastened by 140 golden rivets. The lapis lazuli came from what is now modern day Afghanistan.

These characteristics follow the stylistic conventions of Predynastic Egyptian art, similar to the Mahasna statuette (Amratian Period), or Mac Gregor Man statuette in the Ashmolean Museum. The golden statuettes most probably depict a Predynastic ruler and his son during the heb-sed festival, and they probably adorned a shrine in the Western Kom area. They are thought to belong to the Naqada IIIB period (c. 3200–3000 BC), or possibly even Naqada IIIA (circa 3300 BC). They are thought to be the oldest known depictions of Ancient Egyptian rulers.

Northern expansion

The people of Naqada II and Naqada III seem to have expanded northward into Lower Egypt, replacing the Maadian culture. Maadi was first conquered during Naqada II c-d. The cultures of Lower Egypt were replaced by Upper Egypt and Naqada culture by the end of Naqada II c. 3200 BC. The Maadian culture of Buto, Tell Ibrahim Awad, Tell el-Rub'a, Tell el-Murra, and Tell el-Farkha were vacated, giving way to the Naqada III culture.

Technological innovations

Naqada III extended all over Egypt and was characterized by some notable firsts:

• The first hieroglyphs
• The first graphical narratives on palettes
• The first regular use of serekhs
• Possibly the first example of irrigation

And at best, a notable second:

• The invention of sail navigation (derived from its prior invention in the Persian Gulf 2,000 years earlier)

According to the Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, in February, 2020, Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered 83 tombs dating back to 3,000 BC, known as the Naqada III period. Various small ceramic pots in different shapes and some sea shells, makeup tools, eyeliner pots, and jewels were also revealed in the burial.

Decorative cosmetic palettes

During Naqada III, the highly decorated ivory sculptures of Naqada II were replaced by decorated greywacke palettes. Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the Hunters Palette. During the Naqada IIIA period (IIIA1 and IIIA2), cosmetic palettes are dominated by rectangular shapes.

Penile sheaths

Numerous male statuettes from the Naqada I-III period are shown displaying penile sheaths, a characteristic attribute of many hunter-gatherer societies. Such depictions appear in Hierakonpolis, Abydos, on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or on the golden statuettes of Tell el-Farkha. They were held in place by leather strings tied at the waist, and possible at the bottom as well.

It has been suggested that many of the decorated hippopotamus tusks also found in tombs of the period may be the very penile sheaths depicted in these statuettes, or at least symbolic representations of them. Penile sheath (karnatiw) may also have been used for medical reasons, in a mistaken attempt to avoid schistosomiasis and contamination by cercariae.