Latin translations of the 12th century

Translators on the Spanish frontier

As early as the end of the 10th century, European scholars travelled to Spain to study. Most notable among these was Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) who studied mathematics in the region of the Spanish March around Barcelona. Translations, however, did not begin in Spain until after 1085 when Toledo was reconquered by Christians. The early translators in Spain focused heavily on scientific works, especially mathematics and astronomy, with a second area of interest including the Qur'an and other Islamic texts. Spanish collections included many scholarly works written in Arabic, so translators worked almost exclusively from Arabic, rather than Greek texts, often in cooperation with a local speaker of Arabic.

One of the more important translation projects was sponsored by Peter the Venerable, the abbot of Cluny. In 1142 he called upon Robert of Ketton and Herman of Carinthia, Peter of Poitiers, and a Muslim known only as "Mohammed" to produce the first Latin translation of the Qur'an (the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete).

Translations were produced throughout Spain and Provence. Plato of Tivoli worked in Catalonia, Herman of Carinthia in Northern Spain and across the Pyrenees in Languedoc, Hugh of Santalla in Aragon, Robert of Ketton in Navarre and Robert of Chester in Segovia. The most important center of translation was the great cathedral library of Toledo.

Plato of Tivoli's translations into Latin include al-Battani's astronomical and trigonometrical work De Motu Stellarum, Abraham bar Hiyya's Liber Embadorum, Theodosius of Bithynia's Spherics, and Archimedes' Measurement of a Circle. Robert of Chester's translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi's Algebra and astronomical tables (also containing trigonometric tables). Abraham of Tortosa's translations include Serapion the Younger's Liber de Simplicibus Medicamentis and Abulcasis' al-Tasrif as Liber Servitoris. In 1126, Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Sanskrit works of Surya Siddhanta and Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta) was translated into Latin.

In addition to philosophical and scientific literature, the Jewish writer Petrus Alphonsi translated a collection of 33 tales from Arabic literature into Latin. Some of the tales he drew on were from the Panchatantra and Arabian Nights, such as the story cycle of "Sinbad the Sailor". The Pseudo-Platonic Book of the Cow, a 9th-century Arabic work on natural magic, was translated into Latin in the 12th century, probably in Spain.

The Toledo School of Translators

Toledo, with a large population of Arabic-speaking Christians (Mozarabs) had been an important center of learning since as early as the end of the 10th century, when European scholars traveled to Spain to study subjects that were not readily available in the rest of Europe. Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified with Abraham ibn Daud), who translated Avicenna's encyclopedia, the Kitāb al-Shifa (The Book of Healing), in cooperation with Domingo Gundisalvo, Archdeacon of Cuéllar. The translating efforts at Toledo are often overemphasized into a “school of translation,” however the representation of Toledo translating activity creates a false sense that a formal school arose around the Archbishop Raymond. Only one translation, by John of Seville, can be definitively dedicated to the archbishop. It is more accurate to consider Toledo as a geographically bilingual environment where local interests were favorable to translation efforts, making it a practical and appealing location for translators to work. As a result, many translators became active in the area and Toledo became the focus of translating activity.

However translating efforts were not properly organized until Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces in 1085. Raymond of Toledo started the first translation efforts at the library of the Cathedral of Toledo, where he led a team of translators that included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars, Madrasa teachers and monks from the Order of Cluny. They worked in the translation of many works from Arabic into Castilian, from Castilian into Latin, or directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek, and also made available important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers who the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of Aristotle. As a result of their activities, the cathedral became a translations center known as the Escuela de Traductores de Toledo (Toledo School of Translators), which was on a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture.

The most productive of the Toledo translators at that time was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books, including Ptolemy's Almagest, many of the works of Aristotle, including his Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology, al-Khwarizmi's On Algebra and Almucabala, Archimedes' On the Measurement of the Circle, Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa Astronomica, al-Kindi's On Optics, al-Farghani's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences, the chemical and medical works of al-Razi (Rhazes), the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and the works of al-Zarqali, Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banu Musa, Abu Kamil, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, and Ibn al-Haytham (Not including the Book of Optics, because the catalog of the works of Gerard of Cremona does not list that title; however the Risner compilation of Opticae Thesaurus Septem Libri also includes a work by Witelo and also de Crepusculis, which Risner incorrectly attributed to Alhazen, and which was translated by Gerard of Cremona). The medical works he translated include Haly Abenrudian's Expositio ad Tegni Galeni; Practica, Brevarium Medicine by Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun (Serapion); Alkindus' De Gradibus; Rhazes' Liber ad Almansorem, Liber Divisionum, Introductio in Medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium and Practica Puerorum; Isaac Israeli ben Solomon's De Elementis and De Definitionibus; Abulcasis' Al-Tasrif as Chirurgia; Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine as Liber Canonis; and Liber de Medicamentis Simplicus by Abenguefit. At the close of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an (once again) and various medical works. He also translated Hunayn ibn Ishaq's medical work Liber Isagogarum.

Under King Alfonso X of Castile, Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center. By insisting that the translated output was "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"), they reached a much wider audience both within Spain and in other European countries, as many scholars from places like Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, brought back to their countries the acquired knowledge. Others were selected and hired with very high salaries by the King himself from many places in Spain, like Seville or Córdoba and foreign places like Gascony or Paris.

Michael Scot (c. 1175–1232) translated the works of (Alpetragius) al-Betrugi' On the Motions of the Heavens in 1217, and Averroes' influential commentaries on the scientific works of Aristotle.

Later translators

David the Jew (c. 1228–1245) translated the works of al-Razi (Rhazes) into Latin. Arnaldus de Villa Nova's (1235–1313) translations include the works of Galen and Avicenna (Including his Maqala fi Ahkam al-Adwiya al-Qalbiya as De Viribus Cordis), the De Medicinis Simplicibus by Abu al-Salt (Albuzali), and Costa ben Luca's De Physicis Ligaturis.

In 13th century Portugal, Giles of Santarém translated Rhazes' De Secretis Medicine, Aphorismi Rasis and Mesue's De Secretis Medicine. In Murcia, Rufin of Alexandria translated the Liber questionum medicinalium discentium in medicina by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunen), and Dominicus Marrochinus translated the Epistola de cognitione infirmatum oculorum by Ali Ibn Isa (Jesu Haly). In 14th century Lerida, John Jacobi translated Alcoati's medical work Libre de la figura del uyl into Catalan and then Latin.

Willem van Moerbeke, known in the English speaking world as William of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) was a prolific medieval translator of philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. At the request of Aquinas, so it is assumed—the source document is not clear—he undertook a complete translation of the works of Aristotle or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of the Politics (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. The reason for the request was that the many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation had originated in Spain (see Gerard of Cremona). These earlier translations were assumed to have been influenced by the rationalist Averroes, who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Moerbeke's translations have had a long history; they were already standard classics by the 14th century, when Henricus Hervodius put his finger on their enduring value: they were literal (de verbo in verbo), faithful to the spirit of Aristotle and without elegance. For several of William's translations, the Greek texts have since disappeared, without him the works would be lost. William also translated mathematical treatises by Hero of Alexandria and Archimedes. Especially important was his translation of the Elements of Theology of Proclus (made in 1268), because the Elements of Theology is one of the fundamental sources of the revived Neo-Platonic philosophical currents of the 13th century. The Vatican collection holds William's own copy of the translation he made of the greatest Hellenistic mathematician, Archimedes, with commentaries of Eutocius, which was made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo. William consulted two of the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since disappeared.

Other European translators

Adelard of Bath's (fl. 1116–1142) translations into Latin included al-Khwarizmi's astronomical and trigonometrical work Astronomical Tables and his arithmetical work Liber Isagogarum Alchorismi, the Introduction to Astrology of Abu Ma'shar, as well as Euclid's Elements. Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as Peter Alfonsi and Walcher of Malvern who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Spain. Abu Kamil's Algebra was also translated into Latin during this period, but the translator of the work is unknown.

Alfred of Sareshel's (c. 1200–1227) translations include the works of Nicolaus of Damascus and Hunayn ibn Ishaq. Antonius Frachentius Vicentinus' translations include the works of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Armengaud Blaise's translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and Maimonides. Berengarius of Valentia translated the works of Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis). Drogon (Azagont) translated the works of al-Kindi. Farragut (Faradj ben Salam) translated the works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh (Mesue), and al-Razi (Rhazes). Andreas Alphagus Bellnensis' translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.

In 13th century Montpellier, Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi translated the Kitab al-Aghdhiya by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) as De regimine sanitatis; and Armengaud translated the al-Urjuza fi al-Tibb, a work combining the medical writings of Avicenna and Averroes, as Cantica cum commento.

Other texts translated during this period include a number of alchemical works, the first of which appears to have been the Liber de compositione alchemiae ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy"), translated by Robert of Chester in 1144 and containing a dialogue between Morienus and Khālid ibn Yazīd. Also notable are translations from alchemical works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), such as the Book of the Seventy (Arabic: Kitāb al-Sabʿīn, translated by Gerard of Cremona, before 1187, as Liber de Septuaginta), The Great Book of Mercy (Arabic: Kitāb al-Raḥma al-Kabīr, anonymously translated as Liber Misericordiae), and The Book of the Kingship (Arabic: Kitāb al-Mulk, translated as Liber Regni). Another work translated during this period was De Proprietatibus Elementorum, an Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle. A pseudo-Mesue's De consolatione medicanarum simplicum, Antidotarium, was also translated into Latin by an anonymous translator.

Vernacular languages

In the 12th century in southern France and Italy, many Arabic scientific texts were translated into Hebrew. France and Italy had large Jewish communities where there was little knowledge of Arabic, requiring translations to provide access to Arabic science. The translation of Arabic texts into Hebrew was used by translators, such as Profatius Judaeus, as an intermediate step between translation from Arabic into Latin. This practice was most widely used from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.

List of translations

This list is of translations after c. 1100 of works written originally in Greek.

• Hippocrates and school (5th, 4th centuries B.C.)
  • Aphorisms: Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, 12th century
  • Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
  • Posterior Analytics (a founding document of the logica nova): two versions from Greek, 12th century; from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • Meteorologica (Book 4): Henricus Aristippus, from Greek, Sicily c. 1156
  • Physica, De Generatione et Corruptione, Parva Naturalia, Metaphysica (first 4 books), De Anima, from Greek, 12th century
  • Meteorologica (Books 1-3), Physica, De Cælo et Mundo, De Generatione et Corruptione: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • De Animalibus (Historia Animalium, De Partibus Animalium, De Generatione Animalium): Michael Scot, from a 9th-century Arabic translation, Spain c. 1217-20
  • Almost complete works: William of Moerbeke, new or revised translations from Greek c. 1260-71
• Euclid (c. 330-260 B.C.)
  • Elements (15 books, 13 genuine): Adelard of Bath from Arabic, c. 1126; revised by Campanus of Novara, c. 1254
  • Optica and Catoptrica: from Greek, probably Sicily
• Apollonius (3rd century B.C.)
  • Conica: perhaps Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, 12th century
• Archimedes (287-212 B.C.)
  • De Mensura Circuli: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • De Iis quæ in Humido Vehuntur (On Floating Bodies): William of Moerbeke from Greek 1269
• Diocles ( 2nd century B.C.)
  • De Speculis Comburentibus (On Burning Mirrors): Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
• Hero of Alexandria (1st century B.C.?)
  • Pneumatica: from Greek, Sicily 12th century
  • Catoptrica (attributed to Ptolemy in Middle Ages): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260
• Pseudo-Aristotle
  • Mechanica: from Greek, early 13th century; Bartholomew of Messina, from Greek, Sicily c.1260
  • De Plantis or De Vegetabilibus (now attributed to Nicolaus of Damascus, 1st century B.C.): Alfred of Sareshel, from Arabic, Spain probably before 1200
• Pseudo-Euclid
  • Liber Euclidis de Ponderoso et Levi (on statics): from Arabic, 12th century
• Galen (129-200 A.D.)
  • Various treatises: Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, c. 1185
  • Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • Various treatises: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1277
• Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.)
  • Almagest: from Greek, Sicily c. 1160; Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 1175
  • Optica: Eugenius of Palermo, from Arabic, c. 1154
• Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. 193 -217 A.D.)
  • Commentary on the Meteorologica: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
  • De Motu et Tempore: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
• Proclus (412-485 A.D.)
  • Elements of Physics (De motu): from Greek, Sicily 12th century
  • Elements of Theology: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1268
  • Three opuscules (On Providence, On Providence and Fate, and On the Existence of Evils): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Plato's Parmenides: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
• Simplicius (6th century A.D.)
  • Part of Commentary on Aristotle's De Cælo: Robert Grosseteste, from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Aristotle's Physica: from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Aristotle's De Cælo: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1271
  • Commentary on Aristotle's Categories: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century