Religious Confucianism

Doctrine

Tian and the gods

Tian refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are such a number of uses in Chinese thought that it is not possible to give one translation into English.

Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tiān gave him life, and that tiān watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of the tiān, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that tiān spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tiān was not to be interpreted as personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. Tiān may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. What does Tian say?") as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it.

Zigong, a disciple of Confucius, said that Tiān had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that the Tiān gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue (德; dé). In 8.19 he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with Tiān.

Regarding personal gods (shén, energies who emanate from and reproduce the Tiān) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate (义; 義; yì) for people to worship (敬; jìng) them, though through proper rites (礼; 禮; lǐ), implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master.

Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that to appropriately pray gods one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12 he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors.

Some Confucian movements worship Confucius, although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or the dao, and/or gods from Chinese folk religion. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred.

Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature and also respects various dao, as well as what Confucius saw as the main dao, the "[Way] of Heaven."

The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and wu wei, "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and the sacred Way".

Some Confucianists' worship and views of Tiān in the Yuan dynasty as a "silent...and odorless" creator and a being who cannot be summed up or represented by images was similar to how Chinese Muslims in the era worshipped Allah.

Shangdi

Contemporary Confucian theologians have emphasised differences between the Confucian idea of Shangdi, conceived as both transcendent and immanent, and act only as a governor of the world, and the Christian idea of God, which they conceived contrary to those of Christian as a deity that is completely otherworldly (transcendent) and is merely a creator of the world.

As mentioned above, sacrifices offered to Shangdi by the king are claimed by traditional Chinese histories to predate the Xia dynasty. The surviving archaeological record shows that by the Shang, the shoulder blades of sacrificed oxen were used to send questions or communication through fire and smoke to the divine realm, a practice known as scapulimancy. The heat would cause the bones to crack and royal diviners would interpret the marks as Shangdi's response to the king. Inscriptions used for divination were buried into special orderly pits, while those that were for practice or records were buried in common middens after use.

Under Shangdi or his later names, the deity received sacrifices from the ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty annually at a great Temple of Heaven in the imperial capital. Following the principles of Chinese geomancy, this would always be located in the southern quarter of the city. During the ritual, a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. The Book of Rites states the sacrifice should occur on the "longest day" on a round-mound altar. The altar would have three tiers: the highest for Shangdi and the Son of Heaven; the second-highest for the sun and moon; and the lowest for the natural gods such as the stars, clouds, rain, wind, and thunder.

Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位; shénwèi) inscribed with the name of Shangdi is stored on the throne, Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.

Shangdi's worship in the Yuan dynasty was similar to how Chinese Muslims in the era worshipped Allah.

Rites

Jesa

Jesa is a Confucian ceremony of ancestor veneration. It is the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese jisi 祭祀, although in Chinese culture it is not limited to worship of ancestors.

Sacrifice to Heaven

Sacrifice to Heaven is a rite of worship of Shangdi. It was originally limited to the nobility, but over time became accessible to commoners. It has many local variations.

Feng Shan

Feng Shan is a historically very significant ceremony which is performed irregularly on Mount Tai. Completing Feng Shan allowed the emperor to receive the Mandate of Heaven. It is considered a prerequisite that the empire is in a period of prosperity with a good emperor and auspicious signs to perform the ritual. Many sovereigns refused to perform the ritual citing themselves as unworthy of it.

Unlike sacrifice to heaven, there have been no attempts to replicate this ritual outside of China, but in modern times, a commercialized festival claiming continuity is hosted every year.

Ritual Music System

The ritual and music system is a historical social system that originated in the Zhou Dynasty to maintain the social order.

The ritual and music System is divided into two parts: ritual and music. The part of ritual mainly divides people's identity and social norms, and finally forms a hierarchy. The music part is mainly based on the hierarchical system of etiquette, using music to alleviate social conflicts.

Confucius was a strong advocate of preserving this system.

Views on whether Confucianism is a religion

Sui dynasty views

Li Shiqian wrote in the sixth century his opinions on how Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were religious systems that complemented each other.

Yuan dynasty views

Yang Shouyi, the magistrate of Anxi, viewed Confucianism as a religion that was superior to Taoism and Buddhism in his opinion. Liu Mi, a late Song and early Yuan dynastic elite, stated that Confucianism is 'intended for the governance of the world', distinguishing it from the 'cultivation of mind' (Buddhism) and the 'training of the physical body' (Daoism) in his essay Sanjiao Pingxin Lun.

Qing dynasty views

The Chinese Rites controversy (中国礼仪之争; 中國禮儀之爭; Zhōngguó Lǐyí Zhī Zhēng) was a dispute among Roman Catholic missionaries over the religiosity of Confucianism and Chinese rituals during the 17th and 18th centuries. The debate discussed whether Chinese ritual practices of honoring family ancestors and other formal Confucian and Chinese imperial rites qualified as religious rites and were thus incompatible with Catholic belief.

The controversy embroiled leading European universities; the Qing dynasty's Kangxi Emperor and several popes (including Clement XI and Clement XIV) considered the case; the offices of the Holy See also intervened. Near the end of the 17th century, many Dominicans and Franciscans had shifted their positions in agreeing with the Jesuits' opinion, but Rome disagreed. Clement XI banned the rites in 1704. In 1742, Benedict XIV reaffirmed the ban and forbade debate.

Late Qing dynasty and early Republican era views

Cai Yuanpei and Chen Duxiu expanded on Liang's Religious Confucianism theory, denying that Confucianism was a religion, but not denying that Religious Confucianism had existed after Emperor Wu of Han.

Civil War to modern era views

At the end of 1978, at the founding conference of the Chinese Atheist Society, Ren Jiyu put forward the argument that Confucianism was a religion, and in 1980, Ren published a series of articles formally proposing that "Confucianism is a religion". The first article on Confucianism as a religion was "On the Formation of Confucianism" published in the first issue of Chinese Social Science in 1980, followed by "Confucianism and Confucianism" and other papers. The basis for the Confucianism-is-religion theory is the sacralization of the Confucian classics to establish a Confucian theological system. Theologized Confucianism, which integrates politics, philosophy and ethics into one, forms a vast Confucian system that has always occupied an orthodox position in ideology. The sources of Confucianism are, on the one hand, the theology of providence and the religious idea of ancestor worship during the Yin and Zhou dynasties and, on the other hand, the Confucian doctrine founded by Confucius. The founding of the Doctrine of Science in the Song Dynasty marked the maturity of Confucianism. Confucianism's object of worship is "Heaven and Earth, the ruler and the teacher", and there is a system of deities and rituals for Heaven and Confucius. Its doctrine is the deification and religiousization of the patriarchal system and patriarchal thought. Zhu Xi is very devout to the gods, every major event, to report to Confucius; drought and little rain, to pray to the mountains and rivers and other deities. Zhu Xi's religious feelings, is the typical embodiment of Confucian religious feelings and concentrated representation. The human-god relationship in Confucianism is the expression of the relationship between heaven and man. In Confucianism, heaven is the master of man's fate, and man must submit to the will of heaven. Dong Zhongshu said that heaven has a will, a joy and anger, and can reward good and punish evil. Zhu Xi, based on Dong Zhongshu, rationalized and humanized heaven. It is believed that heaven and moral attributes – the highest good, so that heaven and man a reason, heaven and man through; obedience to the will of God, it is expressed in the compliance with the principles of heaven.

He Guanghu points out that the heaven of Religious Confucianism is the heaven that blesses the people and reprieves sins, and is a supreme god with a will and personality. Lai Yonghai points out that heaven, or God, is the supreme deity of Confucianism, and that the will of heaven is the fundamental starting point for all political and ethical principles of Confucianism. The deity system with God as the supreme deity is the belief system of Religious Confucianism. God was originally the ancestral god of the past. The Confucians of the Song Dynasty described Heaven, Reason, and Emperor (God) as concepts of the same reality and different names, but only changed the concept of God, not the essence of God as the master of the world. Confucius and the best Confucians were worshiped as public gods of the state after their death. Monarchs and Confucians were the rulers and teachers who honored God's command to govern and educate the people. Since the Song Dynasty, Confucians have used philosophical theories of the relationship between reason and qi and the nature of the mind to argue that the teachings of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and the virtues of loyalty, faith, filial piety, and fraternity are the nature given to each person by Heaven, so it is one's duty to observe these principles. Confucianism is essentially the study of the interpretation of the scriptures.

Neo-Confucians like the Cheng brothers concieved of Heaven as the wonderful life-giving activity that transcends the world within the world, making it naturally religious. Other modern Confucians treat the nature of Heaven as a transcendent foundation of moral axiology and political cosmology, representing it as the ultimate ideal in traditional Confucian society; hence, Heaven (Tian) is also treated as the ordered totality of existence itself, the ultimate source of the socio-cosmic order which humanity must align.

On the other hand, some scholars believe that not only Confucianism, but also Confucianism itself, is a human-centered, atheistic religion. The Chinese attach importance to funeral rites, family continuity, filial piety, and returning to one's roots, and respect for ancestors can be considered a habit. Some contemporary Chinese would equate religion with superstition and reject it in word and deed, and thus often do not consider Confucianism as a religion.

Chin-Shing Huang believes that the debate over whether Confucianism is a religion or not in modern times is based on "Christianity" as the basis of religion, and this is how Confucianism is judged. However, this concept differs greatly from traditional religious views, and is different from the three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism that have existed since the Eastern Han Dynasty and could become independent religious entities. The report of the Taiwan Old Practices Survey published in 1910 positioned Confucianism as a religion, stating, "Confucianism is the ancient doctrine of the saints and kings as ancestrally described by Confucius and Mencius, which includes religion, morality and politics, and the three are integrated into a large religious system.

Taiwan Private Law, citing the Journal of Taiwan Prefecture, lists the Jade Emperor, the Dongyue Emperor, Beiji Dadi, Mazu, Wugu Xiandi, Baosheng Dadi, the Lords of the Three Mountains, Shuixian Zunwang, Tan Goan-kong, Guang Ze Zun Wang, Zhu Sae, Chen Jinggu, Emperor Huaguang, miao, the spirits of righteous people, city gods, Tudigong, the Kitchen God, Wenchang Wang and Kui Xing as gods all belonging to various traditions of Religious Confucianism. Later, Fukutaro Masuda argued that the religion of the Taiwanese is "a large folk religion that is a mixture of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism," faithfully reflecting traditional religious concepts. Kataoka's book "Taiwan Folklore" also inherited this religious view and expanded the scope of Religious Confucianism during the Japanese rule. Religious Confucianism was not limited to folk beliefs during the Japanese rule period. In 1941, the entry of "Huang Chunqing" in the "Public Records of Personnel": Huang Chunqing's religion was "Religious Confucianism". Confucianism". Both Huang Chunqing and Wei Qingde crossed over from the Japanese rule period to the postwar period, and their religious beliefs were both positioned as Religious Confucianism. In 1918, Religious Confucianism was listed as the top of "Religion" in the "Journal of the Native Land" compiled by the Bajiran Public School (now Shihlin Elementary School).

Mou Zongsan views Confucianism as an 'atheistic religion' belonging to the rational transcendent discourse of religion based on his interpretation of Kant's "thing-in-itself". He reasoned that Confucianism's theological system uses immanent theology as an essential framework for explaining the religiousness found in the Confucian principle of 'conformity of Heaven and man in union'.

Other (non-Chinese) views on Confucianism

The OER Project views Confucianism as a religion. In a book vetted by Bill Gates and other OER Project members called Big History, its authors defend this stance by discussing how Confucianists historically tried to proselytize to others and also fought wars to enforce the belief system on others and enforce specific versions of it.

Yuval Noah Harari also views the belief system as a religion, although one that venerates nature and Confucianists' view on rationality and what the natural order is instead of what he considers as a religion that revolves around a deity or deities, such as Christianity and some branches of Hinduism. He also classes movements like communism and humanism as religions by the same definition to make a point, which has been criticized.

Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tiān as an anthropomorphic god in a religious manner that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel notes that Confucianism is a natural religion of magic where the Emperor acts as the 'supreme magician'.

Confucian Churches

The Confucian church (Chinese: 孔教会; pinyin: Kǒng jiàohuì or 儒教会; Rú jiàohuì) is a Confucian religious and social institution of the congregational type. It was first proposed by Kang Youwei (1858–1927) near the end of the 19th century, as a state religion of Qing China following a European model.

Since the early years of the Republic of China, Kang Youwei's Confucian movement advocated the separation of Religious Confucianism from the state bureaucracy, allowing everyone to sacrifice to Heaven in a way inspired by Christianity.

The "Confucian church" model was later replicated by overseas Chinese communities, who established independent Confucian churches active at the local level, especially in Indonesia and the United States.

There has been a revival of Confucianism in contemporary China since around 2000, which has triggered the proliferation of Confucian academies (书院; shūyuàn); the opening and reopening of temples of Confucius; the new phenomenon of grassroots Confucian communities or congregations (社区儒学; shèqū rúxué); and renewed talks about a national "Confucian church".

Numerous sects of Chinese salvationist religions and movements such as Falun Gong have incorporated aspects of religious Confucianism. In addition, sects of Japanese Sect Shinto such as Shintō Taiseikyō and Shinto Susei practice Confucian Shinto.

Indonesian Confucian Church

Confucianism originated in China and was brought to Indonesia by Chinese merchants as early as the 3rd century AD. Unlike other religions, Confucianism evolved more into loose individual practices and belief in the code of conduct, rather than a well-organised community with a sound theology—akin to a way of life or social movement than a religion. It was not until the early 1900s that Confucianists formed an organisation, called Khong Kauw Hwe (THHK) in Batavia.

The development of the Confucian Church in Indonesia began in 1900, when the Chinese Association was established, with Pan Jinghe and Chen Jinshan as president and secretary, respectively; the leader of the Chinese Association, Lie Kim Hok, wrote an article entitled "Chinese in 1923, representatives of Confucian churches from all over the world held the first national congress in Java, Surakarta in Central Java, where it was unanimously agreed to establish the Confucian General Assembly, based in Bandung, which was later formally It was later formally established in 1924, and elected Zhang Zhenyi and Hu Yingkong as the president and secretary of the General Council. After the Japanese invasion of Indonesia, the Confucian Church was considered to be against Japan and all its activities were frozen.

After the Indonesian independence in 1945, Confucianism was affected by several political conflicts. In 1965, Sukarno issued Presidential Decree No. 1/Pn.Ps/1965, recognising that six religions are embraced by the Indonesian people, including Confucianism. In 1961, the Association of Khung Chiao Hui Indonesia (PKCHI) (now the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia) had declared that Confucianism is a religion and Confucius is their prophet.

During the New Order, the anti-China policy became a scapegoat-like method to gain political support from the masses, especially after the fall of PKI, which had allegedly been backed by China. In 1967, Suharto issued controversial Presidential Instruction No. 14/1967, which effectively banned Chinese culture, including documents printed in Chinese, expressions of Chinese belief, Chinese celebrations and festivities, and even Chinese names. However, Suharto acknowledged that the Chinese Indonesians had a large amount of wealth and power, despite consisting only 3% of the population.

In 1969, Statute No. 5/1969 was passed, restoring the official total of six religions. However, it was not always put into practice. In 1978, the Minister of Home Affairs issued a directive asserting there are only five religions, excluding Confucianism. On 27 January 1979, a presidential cabinet meeting decided that Confucianism is not a religion. Another Minister of Home Affairs directive in 1990 re-iterated the total of five official religions in Indonesia. Therefore, the status of Confucianism during the New Order regime was never clear. De jure, there were conflicting laws, because higher laws permitted Confucianism, but lower ones did not recognise it. De facto, Confucianists were not recognised by the government, and they were forced to register with one of the original five official religions to maintain their citizenship. This practice was applied in many places, including the national registration card, marriage registration, and family registration card. Civics education in Indonesia taught school children that there are only five official religions.

Following the fall of Suharto in 1998, Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country's fourth president. He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive, and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia. Chinese culture and activities were again permitted.

At present, the General Confucian Church of Indonesia (MAKIN) has about 200 branches throughout Indonesia. Confucian churches organize their members to engage in religious prayers, singing hymns and studying scriptures on a regular basis mainly in auditoriums, and also carry out activities such as traditional Chinese festivals, Confucian rituals on Christmas Day (i.e. Confucius' Birthday or Confucius' Christmas Day), family support, children's education, civil marriages and weddings for couples, funeral ceremonies held for the deceased elderly, charity and disaster relief. The Confucian Church publishes various Confucian classics as well as books such as "Stories of the Sacred Signs of Confucius", "Confucian Hymns", "Liturgy Manual", "Chinese Culture", etc. It also produces various paraphernalia and souvenirs such as hymn discs, dragon and qilin patterns. Since the Chinese language was banned for decades, the books currently published are almost exclusively in Indonesian, and Confucians hope that their children will learn Chinese and read the original scriptures and materials. Indonesian Confucians see Qufu as a "holy place" and hope to visit it at least once in their lifetime.