Jainism in Punjab

History

Origin

Jainism is one of the earliest belief-systems of the Indian subcontinent, based upon the twenty-four tirthankars. According to Jain tradition, Jainism has been present in Punjab since the period of Mahavira. Some claims link Jainism to the Indus Valley Civilization, such as an excavated mound at Harappa that may have uncovered images that are similar to the tirthankars, however this is not conclusive nor ascertained. Archeological finds at Sirkap can trace a Jain presence to the 1st century BCE. Jainism arose in eastern India but diminished in its homeland, instead it took root in western and southern India, where it continued to be practiced. In Punjab, Jainism was an urban religion, being practiced in cities but it was also found in villages.

As per Jain lore, Mahavira visited the site of Bhera in Punjab. A 15th century Jain temple was built at the same location. After this, Mahavira travelled to Gujarat, crossing the Punjab Plain and through Tharparkar district in Sindh. Jain shrines built at Kasur, Lahore, Multan, Sialkot, Bhera, and Jhelum may have commemorated visits by Mahavira to these settlements. A few followers of Mahavira whom were motivated by the principles of non-violence and non-attachment from Punjab and Sindh may have existed during this early-stage of Jain history. Furthermore, Samprati dispatched missionaries the to spread Jain teachings of Mahavira in the region.

The earliest Jain communities seem to have been in Taxila and Tharparkar, before they gradually began settling in different settlements in Punjab and Sindh linked by trade-routes. A Jain community arose in Taksasila, Harappa, Simhapura,Parvatika, Nagarkot-Kangra, Sindhudesa, and Lahore.

Ancient period

Taxila was closely associated with Jainism, with the first recorded evidence in Punjab coming from Taxila, as per Hira Lal Dugar. In ancient times, Taxila had a variety of names, such as Shakambhari, Taxila, Kunal Desha, Gajani, Shaki Dheri, Dharamachakara Bhumika, and Chedimastaka.Kailash Chand Jain dates the Jain influence in the Gandhara region (which includes the Taxila area) to the first centuries CE. According to the Jaina tradition, Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara, entrusted the region of Ayodhya to his son Bharata and the region of Takshashila to his son Bahubali.

As per canonical Śvetāmbara Jaina texts Āvaśyaka Cūrṇi and Āvaśyaka Niryukti, Tirthankara Rishabhanatha visited Takshashila while wandering after initiation as a monk millions of years ago. Upon learning of his arrival, Bahubali, who was not in the city at that moment, rushed to the city, but the Rishabhanatha had already departed before Bahubali arrived. His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a jewelled dharmachakra ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference. The 14th century Vividha Tirtha Kalpa mentions this establishment, stating:

"तक्षशिलायां बाहुबलीविनिर्मितं धर्मचक्रम्॥" - Ācārya Jinaprabhāsūri in "<i id="mwwA">Vividha Tirtha Kalpa"</i> (p. 85)

As per the canonical Jaina text Mahanishith Sutra, the Dharmachakra Tirtha established by Bahubali is recognized as the abode of Chandraprabha, and Takshashila is also referred to as "Dharmachakra Bhumi," marking its significance as a center of Jainism. The association of Bahubali and Taxila is also found in the Jain text Vividhatīrthakalpa by Jinaprabha.

While there is limited information about the subsequent period, it is noted that during the medieval era, Takshashila faced challenges due to the proliferation of fraudulent ascetics and a lack of proper sustenance, leading to restrictions on Jaina ascetics' wandering in the region, as documented in six ancient Jaina texts known as the Chedasūtras.

Emperor Samprati built a Jaina temple known as "Kunala Stupa" in honor of his father Kunala. During Samprati's rule, the extent of the wandering of Jaina monks developed multifold times, and later also included this region.

According to the Prabhavakacharita, by the second or third century CE, Takshashila had approximately 500 Jaina temples and was home to a significant Jaina population. However, a devastating plague struck the city, leading to widespread death and chaos. The Jaina community sent a Sravaka named Virchand to Nadol, who conveyed their suffering to Acharya Manadevasuri. Suri gave "Laghu Shanti Stava," stating that reciting it would alleviate the plague. Following the recitation, the plague subsided within a few days. However, in the third year, the Turks devastated the city.

According to Acharya Dhaneswarasuri's "Shatrunjaya Mahatmya," Javad Shah, a merchant from Mahuva, renovated Palitana temples in Vikrama Samvat 108. He retrieved an image of Rishabhanatha from Takshashila and established it as the principal deity at the principal shrine amongst Shatrunjaya temples. The Gujarati Jain temple Shatrunjaya has a donation record from one Jadav Shah of Taxila.

During Alexander the Great's campaign and the Greek invasion of the Gandhara region in around the 1st century CE, the Greeks recorded encounters with "gymnosophists". The city of Taxila was noted for containing around a hundred Jain stupas (only one of which was identified by John Marshall). Subsequent excavations at the site have uncovered Jain-linked structures, such as the Chirana Padukas at the Murti temple site in Chakwal district.

Excavations in Takshashila support these traditions. John Marshall, the first to conduct systematic excavations at the site, initially thought the newly found Jain structures at Sirkap to be Buddhist until he realized they were architecturally different from the existing Buddhist structures and more similar to the Jain temple (Āyāgapatas) discovered at the Kankali Tila. Marshall noted that Indo-Greek kings displaced the city from its fortified position and settled it in Sirkap during the early years of the second century BCE. The city remained inhabited through the Greek, Shaka, Pahlava, and Kushan periods. Numerous small and large temples have been discovered along the main road of Sirkap. Dr. Marshall concluded that the temples in blocks 'F' and 'G' of Sirkap are Jaina temples due to their architectural similarities with Kankali Tila, a Jaina stupa, found in Mathura. In block 'G,' located on the right side of the main road, numerous ruins of large buildings have been found, characterized by the presence of small temples alongside these structures, which were accessible to devotees. This evidence strongly supports claims by the Jaina tradition that Takshashila was a significant center for Jainism.

A Jain votive tank symbolizing the four elements earth, air, fire and water dating to the 2nd century BCE was discovered at a stupa in Sirkap, now part of the Islamabad Museum's collection. A dancing terracotta female figurine linked to Jainism dated to the 3rd century BCE was uncovered at Bhir Mound in Taxila in January 2026.

There are disputed claims originating from the Divyāvadāna text that the ruler Pushyamitra Shunga killed Jain monks and destroyed their sites at Jalandhar. While Jainism was present in northern Punjab through the 1st to 2nd centuries CE, there is a lack of ancient remains after this point that have been uncovered. However, Jainism remained active in the Tharparkar region of Sindh, whom were linked to the Jain merchants of Gujarat and Rajasthan. As per the Shravanabelagola inscription (1050 Saka era), the Jain monk Sāmantabhadra conducted religious debates in several places, including in Takka (Punjab), during the 2nd century CE. The Jain text Śāntistavana by Manadeva from the 3rd century CE mentions the restoration of Taxila after an invasion by the Turuṣkas. Taxila was believed to have five-hundred Jain temples prior to its destruction in the 6th century CE by Turkic invaders. The Jains of Taxila hid their idols underground during this conflict.

Apart from Taxila and Sirkap, the localities of Opian (connected to ancient Kapisa) in eastern Afghanistan and Katas (in the Salt Range, connected to the ancient Sihapura/Simhapura) in the broader region are also connected to Jainism. The eleventh tirthankar, Śreyāṃsa, is believed to have been born at Simhapura. Jain artefacts, such as statues, were uncovered at Simhapura. The seventh century CE work Varāngacharita mentions Simhapura as being auspicious to Śreyāṃsa. A text known as the Therāvalī refers to the Auḍambarikā śākhā which originated from Rohaṇa. The Auḍambarikā śākhā is linked to the Audumbaras tribe, who inhabited Punjab. As per the Sthirāvalī of the Kalpa-Sūtra, the Majhamika branch of the Jainasaṁgha was founded by the second pupil of Susthita Supratibuddha, Priyagrantha, in the second century BCE. The śrāvakas of the Majhamika branch of the Jainasaṁgha may have shifted from Punjab to Mathura, as per a Kushan inscription from the second century CE recording their presence in Mathura.

Lohacarya (4 BCE – 38 CE), one of the four Jain Pattavalis and 28th guru after Mahavira, settled in Lahore and propagated Jainism in Punjab. He was succeeded by the Suri, the Sethi, and the Bhandara clans.

Mediaeval period

From the 8th century to the British colonial period, the Jains were active in art, trade, and commerce. Furthermore, Jain temples are found from this period in all the major settlements of Punjab that were linked to trade-routes. Punjab and Sindh formed the region of Sindhudesh, where the Indus river basin was. Jains were present at Multan (which remained a critical site for Punjabi Jainism for centuries), Muzaffargarh, and Sahiwal. They were also inhabiting Malika vahana Pura, Mammana Pura, Maruktta, Droha dotta, Farid Pura (Pak Pattan), Devapala Pura (Dipalpur), Bhera, Dera Ghazi Khan, Kohat, Bannu, and Mianwali. Jain also existed at Lahore, which Jain texts call Labhapura. Jainism in Punjab had regional links to Gujarat and Marwar. Jain idols dating to the 8th and 9th centuries CE have been discovered in Punjab. The settlement of Pavvaiyā (most likely located in Punjab on the bank of the Chenab river), where the capital of Toramana was, is recorded as being home to many Jain scholars and monks as per the Kuvalaya-mālā text by Uddyotana-sūri from the 7th century CE. Toramana was a disciple of Harigupta of the Gupta family.

Chinese monk Xuanzang records meeting Jain monks from both the Digambara and Svetambara sects while travelling in the Punjab in the 7th century. During his travels in Kapisa, which is now eastern Afghanistan, he recounted coming upon naked ascetics. At Simhapura (claimed to be Katas/Kataksa in Jhelum by Alexander Cunningham, now Chakwal district), he came upon a stupa that had been constructed by Ashoka. Hiralal Dugar links these observations to Jain sramana and shravak and Jain temples and stupas. At the proposed site of Simhapura in Katas, Aurel Stein discovered a Jain temple in 1889 near Murti. All the items excavated (idols and relics), a large sum, are now part of the Central Punjab Museum's collection. Another early-mediaeval Jain site was at Parvatika/Pavvaiya on the bank of the Chenab (Candrabhaga) river, which may have been another name for the Huna capital Sakala of Toramana. The Huna capital may now be located in Sialkot and Sangla Hill, with the Jain site possibly being near Pabbu Hills. A Jain figure from this time linked to Parvatika who may have royal origin was Harigupta, whom was the teacher (guru) of Toraraya. Old Jain structures, inscriptions, and artwork has also been found at Kangra, such as in its namesake fortress (Kot Kangra, which contains temples dedicated to Adinatha), and at Nagarkot (capital of Trigarta). Near the Indreshwar temple in Kangra Bazaar are the remains of Jain statues, one of which depicts Parsvanatha and has an impartially surviving and damaged Sharada inscription that dates it to either 1154 or 1254 CE (year 30 of Lok-Kala). An earlier Kangra inscription from 854 CE makes mention of two Jain saints, belonging to Rajakula gaccha (Rajagaccha), Sūri Amalacandra (pupil) and Abhayacandra Sūri (teacher). A person named Siddharāja is described as being the student of Sūri Amalacandra, with this person having a son named Dhaṅga, who in-turn had a son named Caṣṭaka, who had a wife named Ralhā. The couple Caṣṭaka and Ralhā had two sons named Kuṇḍalaka and Kumāra who are attributed to constructing an idol of the tirthankar Pārśvanātha. A Kashmiri sravaka named Ratna (Rayana) built a Maṇibimba of Neminātha at Raivataka in 932 CE. The early Muslim rulers of Delhi employed Digambar Jains of Kangra as their local diwan. The Jain text Vijn͂aptitriveṇī about a pilgrimage to Nagarkot from Faridpur on the southern-bank of Vipasa (Beas river) makes references to the conflict between Jasrat Khokhar (Yasoratha) and Sikandar Shah Miri. In around 1000 CE, invading Islamic armies led to Jain, Buddhist, and Hindus burying and hiding their scriptures and idols for their protection.

During the early Muslim, Sultanate, and Mughal periods, Jainism in what is now Pakistan was mostly confined to Sindh. The main Jain tradition in the region was the Kharataragaccha tradition. Jinadattasuri (1075–1154) the first dadaguru of the Kharataragaccha tradition won converts in Sindh. Jinadattasuri also introduced the practice of paňchanada puja, veneration of Punjab's symbolic five rivers. Local lore claims the Jain of the Punjab region in their quest to become affluent were advised by Jinadattasuri to venerate the idol of the yakṣa Mani Bhadra from Bhatner underwater, with this event becoming the Paňchanada festival. Multan was also a key centre of Jainism, with the Komala gaccha and Kharataragaccha being present though they were antagonistic with one another. Jinadattasuri spent the rainy season (cāturmāsa) in Multan in VS 1169 (c. 1112–1113 CE). The second dadaguru, Acharya Jinchandra Suri converted many to Jainism in the Taxila region in 1280 VS (c. 1223–1224 CE). Two years later in 1282 VS (c. 1225–1226 CE), Acharya Siddha Suri also conducted missionary work in the Taxila region. The local Taxila congregation consisted of a hundred households, composed primarily of Oswal Jains of Rajasthani origin. The Jain merchants that settled west of the Rann of Kutch came under its influence due to the missionary work of Jinakuśalasūri (1280–1332). The dādābāṛī of Jinakuśalasūri conducted missionary work in Halla, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Lahore, Narowal, and other places. At Tharparkar in Sindh, the tradition of Jinakuśalasūri became the dominant Jain school of thought. Amongst the Digambaras of Punjab, the Kasthasamgha tradition was pravelent, especially amongst the Agrawalas.

Sirhind (also spelt Sarhind) has a long history and association with Jainism as a site of pilgrimage for their Uttarapath. In Jain texts, the settlement is known as Sinhnad. An old Jain temple dedicated to the deity Mata Chakreshwari Devi (the shasan devi [ruling deity] of Rishabh Dev) can be found in Sirhind. For the origin of the temple, lore claims a Jain congregation (sangh) of Khandelwal (Khandela) took a trip from Madhya Pradesh to Kangra to commemorate Adinatha's visit. Along with them they brought the pindi (circular stone fragment) of their hereditary deity Chakreshwari, who communicated to the congregation in a dream-message that she wished to be left at the spot now marked by the Mata Chakreshwari Devi temple in Sirhind, Punjab and its idol of the goddess. As per Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Samana was also an important place of the Uttarapath pilgrimage route, where the sangh would stay. At Samana, an old Jain temple known Shanti Nath Jain Śvetāmbara Mandir can be found, which contains an idol of the first tirthankar Bhagwan Rishabh Dev dating to VS 1307 (1250 CE), originally housed at an older, nearby temple no longer extant. Faridkot was the site of an upāśrayas and gaddi belonging to the yatis of the Khartargaccha tradition, who built the Śvetāmbara Jain temple there that contained an idol of Arishtanemi. The Vrihattapa gaccha maintained a gaddi in Rupnagar, their leader in 1686 CE was Yati Premavijayji. The Khartar gaccha had a gaddi in Multan.

Jains became prevalent in Lahore during the reign of Akbar, who had founded a syncretic religion and corresponded with a Jain named Hiravijaya Suri. Akbar also kept a company of Jain monks with his entourage when they travelled to Kashmir, such as Khush Faham. During Akbar's reign, the Jain temples at Said Mitha Bazar and Tharhiyan Bhabrian in Lahore were constructed. Also during Akbar's reign, many Jains originally from Marwar began moving and settling in Punjab's towns and cities, with Jain yatis (priests) establishing upāśrayas and ḍerās at places where Jain congregations were living. The Jain official Karam Chand, originally a Bania from Bikaner in Rajasthan, left the service of a local Bikaner ruler and shifted to Lahore, working as a treasurer (Bhānḍāri) for the Mughals. Karam Chand founded a Jain shrine at his habitation south of Lahore near Guru Mangat, with a settlement based on it coming to be known as Bhabra. Karam Chand Bachhawat, whom was an Osavāla Jain, was able to facilitate meetings at Lahore between emperor Akbar and the fourth dādāguru Jinacandrasūri VI (1541–1613) in 1592, 1593, and 1594. Jinacandrasūri disembarked from Multan (Mūlasthāna) and Uch (Uccapuri) in 1595 to visit the samadhi of Jinakuśalasūri in Derawar. After this visit, he returned to Rajasthan. Due to Islamic influence and pressure, the image-venerating faction of Jainism (mūrtipūjaka), such as the Kharataragaccha tradition, declined in the region and the non-image-venerating faction (amūrtipūjaka) became popular. The vaars of the Sikh writer Bhai Gurdas mentions the Bhabra Jains, with some of the references being kaytarhiaan hee baaneeay kitarhay Bhaabhariaan suniaaray ("the people of Bhabra were traders and goldsmiths") and Bhabray toon andi ik muttayyar nachdi.

A Gujarati Jain who was an amūrtipūjaka named Lonkā Šāh or Loṅkāgaccha shifted from Gujarat to Lahore and founded the Lāhaurī- or Uttarārdha Loṅkāgaccha (which the Sthänakvāsī and Terāpanthins derive from). In 1451, Lonkā Šāh opposed the chaityavasi (temple-dwelling monks) and believed there was a degeneration occurring in the Jain monkhood, motivating his reforms based upon practicality (using logic and epistemology), and he did not place as much importance on veneration of the tirthankars or jinas. Loṅkāgaccha's reformist group became dominant in Punjab in the 16th century, founding a gaddīs (seats) in Lahore, Jandiyala Guru, Phagvara, Nakodar, Ludhiana, Patti, Samana, Malerkotla, Patiala, Sunam, Ambala, Kasur, among other settlements. The sixth leader of this group, Yati Saravā, initiated the monks Rāyamalla and Bhallo, who were active in the Punjab between 1503 and 1551. Raimalla and Bhalloo arrived in Lahore, Punjab from Gujarat in 1503, being proponents of the Lahori Uttarardh Lonkā gaccha, which overtime spread around Punjab in the following period. The sect founded gaddies (seats/centres) in various settlements and built Jain Upāśrayas and Jain Śvetāmbara temples. They also created idols of the tirthankars for the Punjabi congregations to venerate. This sect became the most popular Jain tradition in northern Punjab between the 17th and 18th centuries. Lava Ji introduced the mukha-vastrika practice amongst the Lahori Uttaradha gaccha after him finding Dhundhaka Mata in 1709 VS (c. 1652–1653), with adherents of this branch being known as Dhundhia. This group was introduced to Punjab in VS 1731 (c. 1674–1675), via Haridas, with practitioners being affiliated with the Sthankavasis.

The image-venerating faction of Jainism later experienced a revival in the Punjab via yatis, with this faction establishing temples at Ramnagar (Rasulnagar), Gujranwala, Sialkot, Pinda Dadan Khan, or Papanakha. Due to the reintroduction of image veneration, an orthodox monk named Haridāsa split between 1673 and 1693 from the Uttarārdha Loṅkāgaccha and became aligned with the Ḍhūṇḍhaka (Sthānakavāsī) tradition of Lavajī, Gujarat, leading to the foundation of an amūrtipūjaka reformist organization in Lahore, Punjab known as the Pañjāb Lavajī Ṛṣi Saṃpradāya. Eventually, the Uttarārdha Loṅkāgaccha organization was absorbed by the under the leadership of Ācārya Amarasiṃha (1805–1881), allowing the Pañjāb Lavajī Ṛṣi Saṃpradāya to become the most popular and dominant Jain tradition in the Punjab. The Pañjāb Lavajī Ṛṣi Saṃpradāya recruited from the Brahmin, Rajput (Kshatriya), Aggarwal, Jatt, and Bhabra communities, also from the lower-castes. Digambara Jains were generally not found northwest of Ambala. Man Singh I invited Jains from Rajasthan to settle in Pasrur in the Punjab during Mughal times, with these Jain settlers becoming weavers, creating and selling textiles. A famous Jain of Pasrur was Baba Dharam Dass, whom may have been a descendant of the original Oswal Jain zamindar that Man Singh invited to settle in the Pasrur region, whom recruited agriculturalists from his Rajasthani homeland to move there. The samadhi shrine of Dharam Dass near Deoka/Degh, Pasrur became one of the two most sacred Jain sites in Pakistan, alongsite the shrine of Vijayānandasūri. The Duggar lineage of Oswal Jains claim Dharam Dass as an ancestor.

During the Sikh period, Jains were a fundamental part of the local economy via their role as merchant, being heavily involved in the cloth, grains, general merchandise, jewelry, and banking trades. Vimal Chand was bestowed the shripujya title in Hayavatpur (home then to a shravaka community, now located in Patti, Amritsar district) in VS 1871 (1814 CE). Shripujya Vimal Chand then assigned certain individuals to preach in different areas and manage the congregations there. Three of his acaryas were women yatis. The yatis of the sangh were strictly mandated to preach and live in only their designated areas of jurisdiction, at-risk of punishment. Rishis whom obeyed the borders were considered loyal to the Chaturvedi Dharmsangh. The occasion of Ramchandra's ascension as shri-puja occurred in Amritsar.

Colonial period

The introduction of railways and more roads under British-rule allowed the Jains to spread further in the Punjab and, settling in places along trade routes. In-regards to caste, in West Punjab the Śvetāmbara Jains usually hailed from the Osavāla caste while in Sindh they usually belonged to the Poravāḍa and Śrīmālī castes. Despite the Punjabi Osavālas, who called themselves Bhābaṛās, having a Rajasthani origin, they gradually lost touch with their homeland and adopted Punjabi as their mother-tongue (also using Urdu and Persian) and stopped marrying Osavālas from Rajasthan. These Bhāvaṛā/Bhābaṛās were prevalent in mercantile, finance, education, and publishing fields, with many locations (such as villages, bazaars, and mohallas) being named after them in Pakistan. The organizations of the Bhabras controlled most of the Jain heritage sites in Pakistan prior to partition. Apart from the Bhabras, other Jain castes/communities were from Brahmin, Rajput, Aggarwal, Jatt, and lower-caste origin.

Digambara Jains were generally not found in the Punjab but due to them supplying the British military, some communities of Aggarwal (Agravālas) followers of the Terāpanth tradition arose in the cantonment sections of Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Lahore, and Karachi. A Digambar bhaṭṭāraka seat was also found in Multan. Between 1855 and 1875, another spilt in the Punjabi Jain community occurred when sixteen mendicants of the Ludhiana-based Sthānakavāsī Gaṅgārāma Jīvarāja Saṃpradāya and joined with an amūrtipūjaka tradition of Tapāgaccha from Gujarat. The Jain leaders of the most popular Punjabi branch of the Tapāgaccha, known as the Vallabha Samudāy, were Buddhivijaya (Sthānakavāsī name: Būṭerāya, 1806–1882), Vijayānandasūri or Ātmānanda (Sthānakavāsī name: Ātmārāma, 1836–1896), and Panjāb Kesarī Vijayavallabhasūri (1870–1954). The Vallabha Samudāy were fundamental in ensuring the survival of Jainism in Punjab during the colonial-period, where there were rival religious groups, such as Christian missionaries and the Arya Samaj, generating a revival of Jainism in the region through the construction of new temples.

Critical to this Punjabi Jain revival was the monk Vijayānandasūri, who revived image-veneration in Punjabi Jain society, which had been sidelined for a long time. Many Jains were becoming Sikhs, Arya Samajis, or Christians, especially amongst the Oswal and Aggarwal. Furthermore, the Jain philosophy and identity was being criticized. Vijayānandasūri wrote the books Tattva-darsha, Ajnana Timira Bhaskara, and Tattva Nirnaya Prāsād, to articulate his view of Jainism. He travelled around Punjab, Marwar, Mewar, Kathiawar, and Gujarat to lecture and preach on the religion, promoting service of the Shasan and not remaining confined to upāsarās. He pushed to have bhandars (Jain libraries) of the Swetambar Jains in Rajasthan and Gujarat more accessible to others (which had been locked away due to earlier fears of Muslims destroying Jain works and blocking Western academic access), rather than remaining inaccessible and pershing due to being eaten by worms, with the manuscripts being indexed and copied to save the works. He invited orientalist scholars, such as Rudolf Hoernle, to study these works so they could obtain a better understanding of the Jain religion rather than an incomplete conceptualization. Due to the influence of Christian missionaries, the image-venerating faction of Jainism was diminishing in Punjab, which the monk thought was "suicidal" for the Jains. Vijayānandasūri revived image-veneration (as murti puja) by promoting it as a means of concentration and self-realization. Several temples were built and repaired during his time. He also enacted reforms amongst the Jain clergy and shed what he perceived to be Brahminical practices that had crept in amongst their ranks. He disliked how the Oswals, Aggarwals, and Khandelwals refused to eat together or intermarry with one another despite all being Jains, so he promoted more cordial relations between the groups.

The Loṅkā tradition (Uttarārdha Loṅkāgaccha) was disappearing around this time, so its former temples were re-purposed by the followers of the Vallabha Samudāy. Meanwhile, the Sthānakavāsī tradition rejected any construction of new temples and halls, as they viewed this as being "violent" and against their tenets, preferring empty rooms or buildings, but they also began taking over former Loṅkā sites in the late 19th century. In the 20th century, the yati traditions in Punjab began declining due to them getting married and having families, turning Upāśrayas into their own residences, and not maintaining Jain literature as they destroyed works or gave them out for free.

In Rawalpindi in the 1930s, a Jain named Muni Khazāncan of the Pañjāb Saṃpradāya (Pañjāb Lavajī Ṛṣi Saṃpradāya), supported by Pañjāb Kesarī Ācārya Kāśīrām (1884–1945), began a movement against the Sthānakavāsīs by promoting the construction of new religious schools and libraries (sthānakas), starting first in Rawalpindi with his movement spreading later to Gujranwala, Jhelum, Kasur, Lahore, Sialkot, Maler Kotla, and Dhuri. Between 1855 and 1945, Vijayānandasūri also managed to convert śrāvakas of the Sthānakavāsī tradition to the Tapāgaccha tradition. Shri Buddhi Vijay Ji implemented the Mandir Margi Svetambara tradition in Punjab, which focused on constructing and reparing Jain temples, and installing idols. Under him, the Jain mat-Sabha was formed to manage all the Śvetāmbara Jain Sangh, with local branches in settlements being known as Ataman Nand Jain Sabha. The Pañjāb Lavajī Ṛṣi Saṃpradāya banned inter-sectarian marriages or people from different Jain sects from eating together, leading to communal divisions within the regional Osavāla caste.

During the colonial-period, some Punjabi Jains migrated to Africa on the premise of the colonial railway building, but they established businesses there. At Ludhiana, the Jains settled within the city-proper and were fundamental in the establishment of health and educational institutions in the city. The Nahata family constructed Jain temples in Multan, which was 0.04% Jain in 1941. The last yati of the Khartar gaccha gaddi of Multan, Suryamal, died in Calcutta, Bengal in 1943. The Jains were also present in Wazirabad.

1947–present

Punjab, India

The non-image-venerating faction (amūrtipūjaka) took control over most of the Kharataragaccha Jain temples in Punjab, India after partition. The most prevalent Jain tradition in Indian Punjab today in-terms of number of monks/nuns/lay-followers are the Sthänakvāsī of the Śvetāmbara sect. The Sthankavasi Śvetāmbara Jains are increasing, with new sthankas being constructed in eastern Punjab and new initiates into their ranks of monks and nuns. Most of the women ascetics (sadhvis) of Punjab's Jain Sadhvi come from Hindu families. Yati Bhattaraks, whom are allowed to travel, can be found. There are also followers of the Baispanth and Terāpanthins. The yatis are extinct in Punjab as a religious tradition and their descendants are now functioning as a caste. Digambaras are comparatively less present when compared to the Śvetāmbaras. One organization is the Śrī Ātmānanda Jain Sabhā (Tapā Gaccha), which serves as a unifying umbrella organization. It functions to include diverse sub-groups (including Kharatara Gaccha and some Sthānakavāsī) into a single cohesive community.

In 1949, the ninth acarya of the Terāpanthins known as Shri Ji went to Punjab to promote the Anuvrat movement, which converted many local Punjabis to it during this visit. This initial visit was followed in 1978 with a four-month long stay in Ludhiana. The tenth acarya of the Terāpanthins, Mahaprajana Ji, visited Punjab three times by 2001, with Punjab being part of the Ahimsa-Yatra that year. On 14 February 2006, the Maryada (code-of-conduct) of the sangh was received under the tenth Terāpanthin acharya during the 143rd Maryada Mahotsava occurrence. In April the same year, the tenth acharya visited a couple of universities in Punjab. Some have converted to the Terāpanthins after the visits to Punjab by Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Mahaprajna, with new Terāpanthins bhavans being constructed in Punjab as a result.

In Punjab, India, the Jains can be found living in various settlements today and are known for founding educational and health institutions in the state. They are engaged in business at Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Jalandhar. They can also be found in Moga, where three Jain temples are located. The Jains of Indian Punjab founded educational and medical institutions at Barnala, Hoshiarpur, Jagraon, Jalandhar, Jandiala Guru, Khanna, Laalbai, Ludhiana, Nabha, Patiala, Raikot, Rajpura, Sardulgardh, Sahakot, and Sunam. The community's small numbers and lack of engagement in politics somewhat dimishes their influence in the state, with no Jain ever being elected to the Punjab Legislative Assembly since independence. However, some Jains have been elected to the position of sarpanch in the village panchayats. A Punjabi Jain politician named Joginder Pal Jain of the SAD-BJP alliance won the 2007 assembly election in the constituency of Moga, winning the same constituency of Moga in 2012 again against Paramdeep Singh Gill.

Punjab, Pakistan

Prior to the partition of India, Jains constituted around 1% of what is now Pakistan. Most Jains fled the region during the partition of India in 1947, with them settling in the newfound Republic of India. Some Jains stayed behind but they too left during the religious riots of the 1970s and 1990s. The fleeing Jain community took their tirthankar sculptures, artwork, and literature with them but their temples and other properties remained in Pakistan. Some Jain monks, such as Vijayavallabhasūri, broke religious vows to migrate to India for their survival by using trucks, trains or planes. Meanwhile, other Jains converted to Islam. The Jains refugees who moved eastward to India usually settled in Indian Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi. A smaller minority of Jains remain in Pakistan, mostly confined to the Nagarparkar region of Sindh. The Jains of Multan, including the Nahata family, fled for India during partition, along with their monks and murtis. The Nahata family used an airplane to escape, with the Multani Jain artefacts and monks being shifted to a temple in Jaipur. Former Jain sites in Pakistan often became the residences of Muslim refugees from India, while Jain refugees from Pakistan often settled in former Muslim residences in India. The Shri Amar Jain Hostel Lahore was shifted to Chandigarh. Lahore lost its educated Jain population in 1947. The locality of Shahalami Bazaar in Lahore, where most Jain businesses were located, was surrounded in the violence of 1947 and its inhabitants burnt alive.

Jainism and Jain sites are classified as "Hindu" in Pakistan. In 1960, the Evacuee Trust Property Board (Awqaf) was formed to caretake the former sites of Sikhs and Hindus in Pakistan, with Jain heritage being classified as "Hindu" by them. Former Jain ghar-mandirs, upashraya, sthanaks, and sikhar band mandirs have been re-purposed for other uses by the Pakistani authorities and populace. In December 1992 in revenge attacks following the Babri Masjid incident, mobs destroyed the Jain Mandir of Old Anarkali in Lahore. A few Jain families still live in Mithi, Islamkot and Nagarparkar, without any operational worship places. In Sindh today, some Kharataragaccha followers still exist. Majid Sheikh found two Bhabra Jain jewellry traders in the Suha Bazaar of Lahore in 2015.

Very little research has been undertaken examining Jainism in Pakistan. Many locations in Pakistan are still named after the Jain community, such as Bhabra bazaars in Rawalpindi, and Gali Bhabrian and Thari Bhabrian (mohalla) in Lahore. There is also the Brahbra Stop on Ferozepur Road of Lahore.