Zhuhai

Zhuhai was one of the original four special economic zones established in 1980, as well as one of China's premier tourist destinations, being called the Chinese Riviera. While the city is located in the traditionally Cantonese-speaking province of Guangdong, a significant portion of the population is now made up of Mandarin-speaking economic migrants originally from inland provinces.

The core of Zhuhai, Xiangzhou District along with Macao are in the northeastern portion of the administrative division and are part of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area, the biggest built-up area in the world with more than 65,565,622 inhabitants as of the 2020 census, encompassing Shenzhen, Dongguan, Foshan, Zhongshan, Macau, the main part of Guangzhou, and small parts of Jiangmen and Huizhou cities but with Hong Kong not quite conurbated yet.

According to a report released in 2014 by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Zhuhai is the most liveable city in China. Zhuhai is classified as a Medium-Port Metropolis.

History

Prehistoric era through Bronze age

Archeological evidence suggests human inhabitation in the Zhuhai region from at least the Neolithic Age. Numerous sites, including Baojingwan on Gaolan Island and Houshawan on Qi'ao Island, have yielded artifacts including pottery, rings, tools, and discs made of stone and jade that date between the Late Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Baojingwan also contains petroglyphs and paintings from the Late Neolithic period. Zhuhai's prehistoric cultures demonstrate similarities with others discovered in the Pearl River Delta, and indicate the presence of maritime, hunter-gatherer, and agricultural societies. Sites such as Tangxiahua have also revealed bronze casts, indicating the existence of regional bronze manufacturing that was contemporary with the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties.

Imperial China

Qin through Yuan

After the Qin dynasty's conquering of the indigenous Baiyue in 214 BCE, present-day Zhuhai was incorporated into Panyu County within the larger Nanhai Commandery. Following the Qin's collapse, Zhuhai was part of the Nanyue kingdom until its defeat by the Han in 111 BCE. Sustained migration of Han Chinese into the Zhuhai region began during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420). One notable instance was after Sun En's failed rebellion was driven out of Guangzhou; Sun's forces escaped to the Wanshan Archipelago, and their descendants eventually settled on the islands among remaining Baiyue and established fishing communities.

By the Tang dynasty (618-907), sedimentation from the region's watershed formed alluvial plains between islands and gradually expanded Zhuhai's shoreline; its first significant settlement, Xiangshan, was established as a military outpost in 757. Located in present-day Shanchang, Xiangshan assisted in countering piracy along the Maritime Silk Road and eventually developed into a center of salt production. Other regional industries in this period and in the subsequent Song dynasty (960–1279) were silver mining, fishing, and agriculture. Increased migration from Northern China and Xiangshan's productive capacity eventually convinced the imperial court to establish Xiangshan County in 1152 by incorporating land from Dongguang, Nanhai, Panyu, and Xinhui.

Further migration into Zhuhai was prompted by the Jin–Song wars and other upheavals during the Song Dynasty. Zhuhai's prominent local clans, including the Tangs, Zhangs, Yangs, Rongs, and Wus, originated in these waves of migrations; 24 clans had been established in Xiangshan by the Southern Song. Clans brought more effective agricultural practices to Zhuhai and developed it further through land reclamation efforts.

During their retreat from encroaching Yuan forces, the Song imperial court passed through several settlements in Zhuhai, with Hengqin being the location of a battle against the Yuan led by Zhang Shijie. The Battle of Yamen, the Song's last stand against the Yuan, took place near the west coast of present-day Doumen. Zhang Shijie later drowned in the South China Sea, and his body was buried by villagers at the foot of Huangyang Mountain in Doumen. Surviving members of the Song then settled in Xiangshan and were strictly overseen and persecuted by the Yuan government; some lived around Huangyang Mountain and established a hermitage that eventually became Jintai Temple in 1740.

Ming through emergence of Macau

Raids by wokou pirates along China's coasts during the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644) instigated the construction of fortifications in Zhuhai, including on Sanzao Island and Jinding. By the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (1521-1567), the imperial government instituted the Haijin policy, which banned maritime trade throughout Guangdong and other provinces with the intent of countering piracy. Problems with piracy continued to intensify and clandestine trade with foreign merchants persisted in the Zhuhai region. Despite the trade bans, Guangdong governor Lin Fu persuaded the Ming government to open a port at Lampacau in present-day Nanshui in 1529, which between 1553 and 1557 was a center of trade with the Portuguese. Trade officials were eventually moved from Lampacau to Haojing in 1535, which was less remote and considered more favorable for trade.

Portuguese merchants first arrived in Haojing in 1553 after allegedly bribing the port's chief official Wang Bo to allow for the drying of their cargo and establishment of trade operations; increased Portuguese migration to Haojing led to its development into Macau. As Macau grew, the Ming government built fortifications in Zhuhai to prevent further encroachment by Portugal, including a border checkpoint at Gongbei in 1574 and a military garrison at Qianshan in 1621.

Following the collapse of the Ming, the Qing dynasty enforced the Great Clearance along China's coastal provinces between 1656 and 1684 to counter Ming loyalists that operated out of Taiwan. Xiangshan County and all surrounding municipalities were subsequently evacuated, with anyone resisting facing death. Residents in Zhuhai reluctant to leave their homes hid in Hengqin, Sanzao, Gaolan, and elsewhere; they were infamously lured out by the Qing army in 1664 to Huangshan mountain in Doumen and killed en mass. Piracy and banditry also worsened in Zhuhai during the chaos of the transition to the Qing, and its islands and villages were subject to violent raids. Many of Zhuhai's original inhabitants did not return after the clearance policy ended in 1684, and the area became populated with migrants from other regions in Guangdong. Settlements in Zhuhai then proliferated into the 18th century as the economy recovered from the clearance; many of Zhuhai's present-day villages originate from this period.

To emphasize their sovereignty over Macau, the Qing government implemented a local governance structure in 1731 at Qianshan to manage Chinese and Portuguese affairs, which was eventually moved to Mong Ha in 1743. A further layer of authority, the Macau Coast Military and Civilian Government, was added in 1744 and governed Xiangshan as well as other nearby counties; this organization's chief official was based out of the Qianshan fort until 1910.

Late Qing

Beginning in the 18th century, the opium trade arose in Zhuhai and the broader Pearl River Delta. British merchants originally stored opium at Yunque Bay to the south of Macau before moving their operations to Lintin Island following the Qing bans on the trade. Illicit opium trafficking then continued between Western and Chinese smugglers in the waters around Cumsingmoon.

The Pearl River Delta's piracy problem also reemerged beginning in the 1780s, initially with support from the Vietnamese Tây Sơn dynasty that the Qing unsuccessfully fought during their invasion of Đại Việt in 1788. Primarily targeting foreign and Chinese merchant vessels, including those trading in opium, the region's pirates numbered in the tens of thousands by 1805, and had bases throughout the Delta; those in Zhuhai included anchorages at Gaolan, Sanjiao, and Zhuzhou Islands. Cheung Po Tsai, considered one of the most formidable pirates of the period, raided several areas in Xiangshan in August 1809. After repeated failures at combating the region's piracy, the Qing began offering amnesty to pirate leaders in exchange for military postings and monetary rewards; this, along with infighting among pirate gangs, significantly reduced pirate activity by 1810.

In the prelude to the First Opium War, villagers on Qi'ao Island, an opium depot in northwestern Zhuhai, skirmished with British and American opium traffickers on July 1, 1836 and successfully pushed them out. After the war broke out in 1839, the British Army instigated the Battle of the Barrier at the Macau-Xiangshan border wall at Gongbei on August 19, 1840; the British force's superior firepower resulted in a Qing defeat. The Qing's loss of the war in 1842 and subsequent signing of unequal treaties with a series of Western countries motivated the Portuguese to assert greater authority over Macau; this led to the Passaleão incident in August 1849, when Portuguese troops successfully occupied the Qing's fort Baishaling at Gongbei after the assassination of Macau Governor João Maria Ferreira do Amaral. Further Portuguese encroachments into Xiangshan resulted in the Qing government signing the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking in 1887, which officially recognized Portugal's sovereignty over Macau. Border disputes in Zhuhai between Macau and the Qing government continued into the early 20th century; some villages organized local militias to resist Portuguese expansionism. Beyond conflicts with foreign powers, Zhuhai was also impacted by the Red Turban Rebellion led by the Hongmen society in the 1850s, with areas like Doumen serving as bases of activity for the rebels.

Throughout the 19th century, many of Zhuhai's residents migrated abroad in pursuit of economic opportunity; others were trafficked as a part of Macau's coolie trade that boomed after the First Opium War. Some became successful businessmen and reinvested their earnings into their hometowns. These included Wu Yuzheng and Wang Xi, who along with others in Xiangshan worked to establish Xiangzhou in 1908 as a tax-exempt port and commercial center. Xiangzhou's prosperity was short-lived, and it was eventually deserted due to lack of government support and investment, competition from Macau, and a devastating fire in 1911. Remittances also emerged as an important source of income for locals as migration increased.

Zhuhai's proximity to Macau and Hong Kong enabled greater exposure to Western ideas and education among its residents; many went on to become prominent intellectuals, reformers, and revolutionaries. This was exemplified in the life of Yung Wing, a native of Zhuhai who was the first Chinese graduate of an American college, founder of the Chinese Educational Mission, and ardent supporter of reform during the late Qing and early Republican periods. Others included Yang Pao'an, a Marxist activist and early member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) who helped facilitate the First United Front between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the CCP, and Su Zhaozheng, a labor organizer and CCP member who led the 1922 seamen's strike and 1925 Canton–Hong Kong strike. The Zhuhai area was also a major source of compradors that worked with Western firms in Guangzhou, Shanghai, and other ports throughout China with significant international trade; notable figures from this group hailing from Zhuhai included Tong King-Sing.

Republican period through Sino-Japanese war

Early Republican era and establishment of Zhongshan County

Qing rule ended in Xiangshan on November 6, 1911 during the Xinhai Revolution. Banditry and piracy was rife throughout Zhuhai's villages and islands in the subsequent Warlord Era. The Portuguese made numerous attempts to take advantage of early Republican China's instability and expand Macau's territory further into Zhuhai, leading to violent border disputes. Tensions between Macau and the Nationalist government reached a head following the May 29th Incident in 1922; Chinese forces were stationed at Qianshan and the waters surrounding Macau until the crisis subsided after Chen Jiongming's coup against Sun Yat-sen on June 15. During the 1925 Canton–Hong Kong strike, merchants and farmers in Zhuhai assisted in blockading Macau at Qianshan between June 1925 and October 1926.

Under the First United Front between the KMT and CCP, the Central Committee of the Kuomintang ordered the Peasant's Department and its associated Peasant Movement Training Institute in 1924 to cultivate the peasant movement against landlords in Xiangshan. Peasant associations, which consisted of grassroots militias and governing organizations, were first formed in Zhuhai at Shangzha in December 1925. This coincided with Ye Jianying's establishment of a National Revolutionary Army (NRA) regiment in Xiangzhou under orders from Sun Yat-sen and Liao Zhongkai; per Liao's instructions, part of the regiment assisted in the growth of the area's peasant movement. In reaction to the peasant movement, local landlords and right-wing members of the NRA staged a violent mutiny against suspected left-wing members of the Xiangzhou regiment on April 26, 1925, resulting in the death of 27 officers and soldiers. Ye successfully quelled the mutiny on April 27 and built a memorial cemetery for the soldiers that died during the revolt; it is known today as the Xiangzhou Martyr's Cemetery and has been designated a protected landmark. Following the Shanghai massacre of CCP members in April 1927, forces allied with the KMT's right wing successfully suppressed Zhuhai's peasant organizations by executing or imprisoning its leaders and militiamen.

After Sun Yat-sen passed away in 1925, Xiangshan County was renamed to Zhongshan in his honor. In 1929, Zhongshan was designated by the Nationalist government as a "model county" within their larger modernization efforts during the Nanjing decade, entitling Zhongshan to state support via tax exemptions and financial assistance. Modernization initiatives under magistrates Tang Shaoyi between 1930 and 1934 and Yang Ziyi between 1935 and 1937 resulted in the completion of multiple infrastructure projects and the reform of public services, including law enforcement and public health programs per the prescriptions of the New Life Movement. These plans originally proposed the development of Tangjiawan, Zhongshan's seat of government between 1930 and 1934, into a commercial port that would compete with Hong Kong; they were ultimately aborted due to prohibitive costs and insufficient support from the central government. Political instability, including that instigated by warlord Chen Jitang during his consolidation of power in Guangdong, further disrupted Tangjiawan's development. Several sites in Zhuhai from this period, including Gongle Garden on Tang's former estate, have been retained and preserved.

Japanese invasion and occupation

Japanese forces established a presence in Zhuhai from the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, docking warships from the 5th Fleet along the coast and launching air raids throughout the region. Chinese soldiers and civilian militias successfully resisted several Japanese incursions. The Imperial Japanese Army then ordered the construction of an airbase at Sanzao Island on December 3, 1938, which they occupied from February following a brief withdrawal. Forces from the 4th Fleet docked at Sanzao on December 5 and began building docks and cabins; 30 islanders that refused to work on the structures were executed, and local women were raped.

Between April 12 and 14, as a part of scorched earth "mopping up" operations, Japanese troops began massacring civilians and burning villages throughout the northern part of Sanzao; evidence suggests that more than 2,000 residents were killed. Further mass killings by the Japanese during their occupation resulted in 2,891 more deaths, and starvation and famine that occurred after surviving residents were forced from their homes killed around 3,500. Of Sanzao's pre-war population of 12,000, only 1,800 remained by June 1938; any that were not killed in the massacres or subsequent starvations had escaped the island. Around 1,000 refugees that had fled to Macau relocated to the Ying Hang camp in Wanzai in 1939.

Survivors were made to perform forced labor to construct the Japanese airbase; labor from Japan's other occupied territories was imported to accelerate the base's completion. Residents were subject to surveillance, prohibited from leaving Sanzao, and forced to engage with senbu educational and propaganda programs. The Japanese also established 2 schools, the first being for Japanese immigrants brought to colonize the island, and the second, called Zhengbiao, for locals; students of Zhengbiao were forced to learn Japanese and display loyalty to Japan. Stations for comfort women were also set up around Sanzao with locals as well as women from other Japanese colonies. Rape and sexual violence against Sanzao women continued throughout the rest of the occupation.

More than 6,000 Japanese were stationed on Sanzao by the end of September 1938, and the airbase served as an important position in Japanese attacks throughout South China. Japan's position in Sanzao also enabled it to repress Zhuhai's remaining Chinese resistance, and by March 1940 Zhuhai was fully under Japanese control; CCP guerilla units continued to engage with Japanese occupiers in the region's mountainous rural areas and islands.

After the war, survivors and overseas Chinese funded and constructed a memorial to the victims of Sanzao in 1948, which has since been relocated and designated as a protected cultural site since 1983. Buildings from the former airbase have been preserved and dedicated as historical landmarks. Academic research beginning in the 1990s, which has included interviews with eyewitnesses, has also heightened public understanding of the atrocities committed by the Japanese military at Sanzao.

Establishment of Zhuhai through Cultural Revolution

In the final months of the Chinese Civil War, the CCP took control of Zhuhai between October 1949 and August 1950, with the Wanshan Archipelago Campaign forcing the KMT from the region. Southwestern Zhongshan and the archipelago around Hong Kong were first designated as "Zhuhai County" in 1952. Further administrative merges and separations occurred between Zhuhai and Zhongshan during the 1950s and 1960s.

With the inception of the CCP's first five-year plan in 1953, Zhuhai's fisheries, many of which were operated by the historically oppressed Tanka people, and farms were collectivized into cooperatives. These were negatively impacted by the Great Leap Forward's subsequent emphasis on steel production and industrialization, which led to food shortages and the emigration of many of Zhuhai's farmers and fishermen to Macau and Hong Kong. The policies of the Land Reform Movement confiscated the property of Zhuhai's many overseas Chinese landlords and families; those with connections to overseas Chinese communities were persecuted.

During the 1960s and through the Cultural Revolution, the CCP considered Zhuhai part of the "frontline of class struggle" as a coastal region adjacent to Macau. This was reflected in its designation as a "border defense area" in 1961 and the establishment of anti-emigration and "anti-sabotage" campaigns in 1962. By 1968, upheavals induced by the Cultural Revolution had undermined Zhuhai's governance structures and economy, leading to a general breakdown in social order. Watchtowers were built around Zhuhai during this period to prevent emigration to Macau and Hong Kong. Strict controls over commerce between Zhuhai and Macau led to a decline in business activity until reforms in 1973 relaxed some restrictions and increased trade. The Macau-Zhuhai border checkpoint at Gongbei was also the location of large Red Guard protests and violent clashes with People's Liberation Army (PLA) troops during the 12-3 incident in December 1966.

Foundation of special economic zone and modern development

Zhuhai was elevated to city status in 1979; Doumen County was put under its jurisdiction in 1983. As a part of Deng Xiaoping's reforms, Zhuhai became one China's first special economic zones (SEZs) in 1980. This enabled a period of significant economic growth and industrialization; between 1980 and 1984, Zhuhai grew at an average annual rate of 34%, representing a tripling in the size of its economy. These developments attracted significant migration from neighboring provinces. Zhuhai was envisioned by officials to be well positioned for economic cooperation with Macau; infrastructure development was also prioritized. The 1980s also saw Zhuhai become the location of China's first ATM machine, which was installed by the Bank of China in 1987; the Bank of China had earlier launched its first credit card in Zhuhai in 1985. After its annual GDP growth peaked at 68.7% in 1984, Zhuhai began to lag behind other SEZ such as Shenzhen due to factors including a relative lack of logistics infrastructure, its distance from Hong Kong, and underwhelming investment from Macau. This caused some firms to begin leaving the SEZ by the mid-1990s.

In light of Zhuhai's challenges with continued economic expansion, local officials shifted from encouraging export-driven manufacturing and towards the conservation of Zhuhai's natural environment, which they viewed as an asset. The prioritization of environmental protection was also in reaction to the environmental degradation and pollution caused by Zhuhai's rapid development during the 1980s. By the 1990s, Zhuhai's second mayor, Liang Guangda, had reoriented policy towards green growth partially inspired by Singapore's approach to urban planning; regulations introduced as a part of this initiative banned heavy industry, instituted environmental conservation, and promoted green urbanism. Its economic strategy promoted tourism and sustainable development while also cultivating sectors including electronics manufacturing, education, and real estate; this produced companies including Gree Electric and Meizu. In recognition of its efforts towards sustainable development, Zhuhai was awarded the Dubai International Award for Best Practices by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 1998.

In the 21st century, Zhuhai has received heavy investment under the central government's plans to integrate the Pearl River Delta metropolitan region, most notably via the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge. The Guangdong-Macao In-Depth Cooperation Zone in Hengqin has also been subject to significant attention from high-level officials, including Xi Jinping, as a site for further economic and political integration between Macau and Mainland China.