Buddhist liturgy

Liturgies typically consist of chanting or recitation of sūtra(s) or passages from a sūtra, mantras and dhāraṇīs (especially in Mahayana and Vajrayana), gāthās and verses of praises to Buddhist deities and figures as well as other types of rituals like dedications of offerings to the Buddhas, repentance rites as well as food bestowal rites. Depending on what practice the practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home. The liturgy is almost always performed in front of an object or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water and/or food.

Chinese Buddhist liturgy (chaomu kesong)

Overview

The traditional Chinese Buddhist liturgy that is performed during daily service is typically referred to as the zhāo mù kè sòng (朝幕課誦, lit: "Morning and Evening Chants") and is usually ordered into the morning session, called the zaoke (早課), and the evening session, called the wanke (晚課).

Vocal performances of the liturgy can be classified into several different categories, namely: nian (念, lit: "recitation"), song (誦, lit: "chanting") and chang (唱, lit: "singing"). During performances, sūtras are usually read on a single note with a regular beat that may progressively speed up, mantras and dhāraṇīs are chanted, and gāthās of praises are sung on a regular metric form with the use of melodies composed from precise pitches. In particular, Chinese Buddhist ritual chanting performed in a distinctively clear, melodious, and resonate voice is specially termed fanbai (梵唄, lit: "the speech of Brahmā"). Traditional Chinese musical instruments are also frequently employed, such as the gong, the muyu (木魚, wooden fish), the qing (磬, sounding stones), the gu (鼓, drums), the zhong (鐘, bells), the chazi (镲仔, cymbals), the yinqing (引磬, a type of hand bell) and the dangzi (鐺子, a small handheld gong). In addition, different provinces in China, overseas Chinese communities and even individual temples preserve multiple different regional traditions of musical performance.

Liturgical texts

The liturgy typically combines practices and techniques from various traditions in Chinese Buddhism, such as bowing and walking meditation from Chan, nianfo practices and devotion towards Amituofo from Pure Land as well as mantra recitation from Esoteric Buddhism. Sitting meditation often occurs before or after the liturgy.

Various different compilations of texts for daily liturgical service and other rituals have been documented historically. One of the most influential examples is the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) Zhujing Risong Jiyao (諸經日誦集要, lit: "Compilation of Essentials for the Daily Chanting of Various Sūtras") which was originally critically revised and edited by the eminent monk Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏, 1535–1615), who was the Eighth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition According to Zhuhong's account in his preface to his manual, he was motivated to create a new liturgical manual after seeing that another manual that was in wide circulation at the time contained false scriptures. Using that manual as a foundation, Zhuhong removed the erroneous material while inserting new scriptures and mantras into the text, thus compiling the Zhujing Risong Jiyao. He then printed it and sent it into circulation. During a later reprinting, he made even more revisions and printed it as a booklet, which was preserved at his temple on Mount Yunqi in Hangzhou. As the abbot of his temple, Zhuhong also used the Zhujing Risong Jiyao to standardize the daily practices and system of training of his monastic saṃgha. Zhuhong's Zhujing Risong Jiyao was later reprinted by the eminent monk Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599–1655), who was the Ninth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition and Thirty-First Patriarch of the Tiantai tradition. Zhixu and the monks at Zhuhong's temple at the time re-edited the Zhujing Risong Jiyao and moreover added some elements from the Vinaya canon that would be inspirational and helpful for beginners before reprinting and circulating.

In contemporary times, several different compilations have seen usage among different temples and lineages. One example is the Chanmen Risong (禪門日誦; lit: "Daily Chants of the Chan Gate"), a compilation whose earliest printed edition that is extant dates back to 1723 during the Qing dynasty and which was printed at Hoi Tong Monastery. Various subsequent editions with minor changes were published during the rest of the Qing dynasty period (1644–1912) through to the Republican era (1912–1949) by various temples. In the 21st century, one of the most popular editions has been the version that was originally published by Tianning Temple in Changzhou, which has seen modern reprints by retailers and publishers. Another example is the Fomen Bibei (佛門必備課誦本, lit: "Book of Essential Chants of the Buddhist Gate") which was first published during the Republican era and has also seen modern reprints. Both of these compilations show heavy influences from the earlier Zhujing Risong Jiyao by Yunqi Zhuhong. Another liturgical compilation that has seen contemporary usage is the Risong Jingzhou Jianyao Keyi (日誦經咒簡要科儀, lit: "Concise Rituals for the Daily Chanting of Sūtras and Mantras") that was first published in 1937 during the Republican era by the Honghua Society (弘化社), an organization that was founded by the eminent monk and Thirteenth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition, Yinguang (印光, 1862–1940).

Commentaries have also been written on the significance and structure of the rituals proceedings, such as an influential and comprehensive volume called the Erke Hejie (二課合解, lit: "Compiled Explanations on the Two Services") by the Republican era Tiantai monk Guanyue Xingci (觀月興慈, 1881 – 1950) and another extensive work called the Chaomu Kesong Baihua Jieshi (朝暮課誦白話解釋, lit: "Explanations on the Morning and Evening Services in the Common Vernacular") by Huang Zhihai^[zh] (黄智海, 1875–1961), a Buddhist scholar who was a student of Yinguang.

Some common ritual proceedings specified by many daily liturgies include:

• Refuge in the Triple Gem (three times)
• Incense offering praise (on certain occasions)
• Sūtra Opening Verse
• Sūtra Reading
• Dhāraṇī recitation
• Food offering to hungry ghosts (evening only)
• Nianfo
• Refuge in the Triple Gem
• Offering to Weituo (morning) or Qielan (evening)
• Transfer of merits
• Meal offering dhāraṇī (供養咒, morning and before noon only)
• Verses for concluding the meal (結齋偈)
• Bowing in homage to ancestral patriarchs (on certain occasions)

Typically, more specialized rituals and ceremonies that are regularly scheduled either weekly or monthly or annually, such as the various types of repentance rites (懺悔), gongfo zhaitian rites (供佛齋天) where offerings are made to the Buddhas and deities, Yujia Yankou rites or the Shuilu Fahui ceremony have their own dedicated liturgical texts as well. In addition, many Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and dharmapalas have their own dedicated annual days of remembrance where special liturgies are sung in praise of them.

Zaoke (Morning Service)

Many contemporary liturgical texts follow a similar order of recitation for the zaoke service, with some variations between texts such as the addition or substitution of sections like eulogies and gāthās of praise. Some compilations also append a short commentary by the eminent Qing dynasty monk and National Preceptor Yulin Tongxiu (玉林通琇, 1614–1675) on the structure of the zaoke service called the Zaoke lunguan (早課綸貫). An example of an order of recitations is as follows:

1. A eulogy called the Baoding zan (寶鼎讚, lit: "Praise of the Jewelled Censure"), which is typically only chanted during the first and fifteenth day of each lunar month.
2. The Lengyan Zhou (楞嚴咒), or the Śūraṅgama mantra. According to Yulin's commentary, the purpose of the mantra is to regulate the five desires (i.e fame, lust, food, sleep and money) before they are able to arise so that the mind is able to quickly penetrate and directly reveal the true nature of the Tathāgatagarbha.
3. The Dabei zhou (大悲咒), or the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī. According to Yulin's commentary, the purpose of the mantra is to purify the mind.
4. The Ten Small Mantras, a grouping that is known in Chinese as the Shi xiao zhou (十小咒;):
   1. The Ruyi Baolunwang Tuoloni (如意寶輪王陀羅尼), or the Cintāmani Cakravartin Dhāraṇī. Associated with Ruyilun Guanyin, an esoteric manifestation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin.
   2. The Xiaozai Jixiang Shenzhou (消災吉祥神咒), or the Jvala Mahaugra Dhāraṇī. Yulin's commentary states that the function of this mantra is to prevents calamities and brings good fortune.
   3. The Gongde Baoshan Shenzhou (功德寶山神咒), or the Guna Ratna Sila Dhāraṇī.
   4. The Zhunti Shenzhou (準提神咒), or the Mahācundi Dhāraṇī. Associated with the Bodhisattva Zhunti, a bodhisattva who is sometimes regarded as an esoteric manifestation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin. Yulin's commentary states that this mantra can completely eradicate all obstructions regarding phenomena to reveal the Dharma-nature in its fullness.
   5. The Dasheng Wuliangshou Jueding Guangmingwang Tuoluoni (大乘無量壽決定光明王陀羅尼), or the Aparimitāyur-jñāna-suviniścita-tejo-rājāya Dhāraṇī. According to Yulin's commentary, the purpose of the mantra is to entreat Wuliangshou Jueding Guangmingwang Rulai, the Buddha summoned by the mantra, to bestow wisdom-life upon the celebrants.
   6. The Yaoshi Guangding Zhenyan (藥師灌頂真言), or the Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūrya Prabhasa Tathāgatā Abhisecani Dhāraṇī. Associated with the Buddha Yaoshi. According to Yulin's commentary, the mantra further enhances the celebrants' wisdom so that it becomes like crystal encompassing a jeweled moon within.
   7. The Guanyin Linggan Zhenyan (觀音靈感真言), or the Āryavalokiteśvarā Bodhisattva Vikurvana Dhāraṇī. Associated with the Bodhisattva Guanyin. According to Yulin's commentary, the mantra allows the reciter to mesh with Guanyin's ear-organ and the entire Dharma Realm.
   8. The Qifo Miezui Zhenyan (七佛滅罪真言), or the Sapta Atītabuddha Karshaṇīya Dhāraṇī. Associated with the Seven Buddhas of Antiquity. Yulin's commentary states that the mantra allows reciters to root out karma.
   9. The Wangsheng zhou (往生咒), or the Amitābha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani. Associated with the Buddha Amituofo. Yulin's commentary states that the reciters use the mantra as a way to request Amituofo to certify rebirth in the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī.
   10. The Da Jixiang Tiannü Zhou (大吉祥天女咒), or the Shrīdevī Dhāraṇī. Associated with the Buddhist goddess Jixiang Tiannü.
5. The Bore Xinjing (般若心經), or the Heart Sūtra. Yulin's commentary states that the purpose of reciting the Bore Xinjing is to prevent the reciters from becoming attached to states of contemplation that occur during chanting due to its teaching on the nature on emptiness.
6. The Ten Great Vows of the Bodhisattva Puxian (普賢菩薩十大願), which come from the final chapter of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.
7. Three Refuges (三皈依) in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha along with transfer of merit.
8. The Da Jixiang Tiannü Zhou (大吉祥天女咒), or the Shrīdevī Dhāraṇī is recited again.
9. Gāthās of praises to the dharmapala Weituo.
10. Verses of homage as well as prostrations to past Buddhist Patriarchs (禮祖).

Wanke (Evening Service)

Some compilations also append another short commentaries by Yulin on the structure of the wanke service called the Wanke lunguan (晚課綸貫). An example of an order of recitations is as follows:

1. The Amituo Jing (阿彌陀經), or the Amitābha Sūtra. Yulin's commentary states that the sūtra will awaken the chanter to the wonderful rewards of Amituofo's Pure Land of Sukhāvatī and encourage them to aspire for rebirth there by practicing nianfo. This is typically recited during the wanke on odd-numbered days.
2. The Wangsheng Zhou (往生咒), or the Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani. Yulin's commentary states that the purpose of the mantra is to pull out the roots of karmic obstructions and entreat Amituofo to guanrantee rebirth in Sukhāvatī.
3. The Eighty-eight Buddhas Repentance Ceremony (八十八佛大懺悔文), where the chanters prostrate while chanting the names of Eighty-eight Buddhas. This is typically recited during the wanke on even-numbered days.
4. The Mengshan Shishi (蒙山施食, lit: "Mengshan food bestowal), a ritual aimed at feeding hungry ghosts which has its own liturgical section containing various mantras and verses, including mantras related to the Bodhisattvas Guanyin and Dizang.
5. The Bore Xinjing (般若心經), or the Heart Sūtra. Yulin's commentary states that it is recited to impart knowledge regarding emptiness to the hungry ghosts so that they may come to the understanding that both offenses and blessings have no host and that people and dharmas are empty.
6. The Wangsheng Zhou (往生咒), or the Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani, is recited again.
7. A few gāthās in praise of Amituofo and deliverance before the nianfo is chanted many times.
8. Three Refuges (三皈依) in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha along with transfer of merit.