Buddhism in Vietnam

Buddhism may have first come to Vietnam as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE from the Indian subcontinent or from China in the 1st or 2nd century CE. Vietnamese Buddhism has had a syncretic relationship with certain elements of Taoism, Chinese spirituality, and Vietnamese folk religion. Theravada Buddhism also exists, as well as indigenous forms of Vietnamese Buddhism such as Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương and Hòa Hảo.

Vietnamese Buddhism is generally inclusive and syncretic, drawing on the main Chinese Buddhist traditions, such as Tiantai (Vietnamese: Thiên Thai) and Huayan (Hoa Nghiêm), Zen (Thiền), and Pure Land (Tịnh Độ).

History

Buddhism has a long history in Vietnam. The religion's history in the country spans various periods, from its initial entry during the early centuries of the first millennium CE to the modern era. Vietnamese research teams have gathered previously unknown data from archaeological finds and ancient archival records to provide historical analysis and cultural interpretation.

Early history

There are conflicting theories regarding whether Buddhism first reached Vietnam during the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via delegations from India, or during the 1st or 2nd century from China. In either case, by the end of the 2nd century CE, Vietnam had developed into a major regional Mahayana Buddhist hub, centering on Luy Lâu in modern Bắc Ninh Province, northeast of the present-day capital city of Hanoi. Luy Lâu was the capital of the Han region of Jiaozhi and was a popular destination visited by many Indian Buddhist missionary monks en route to China. The monks followed the maritime trade route from the Indian subcontinent to China used by Indian traders. A number of Mahayana sutras and the āgamas were translated into Classical Chinese there, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters and the Anapanasmrti-sutra. Jiaozhi was the birthplace of Buddhist missionary Kang Senghui, who was of Sogdian origin.

Early Buddhist missionaries included the Indian monks Mahajivaka and Kalacarya. Mahajivaka and Kalacarya arrived together in Luy Lâu, the headquarters of Governor Shishee (Si Nhiep), towards the end of the Han dynasty Emperor Lingdi's reign (168-189 AD). While Kalacarya stayed in Giao Châu (modern Jiaozhou), Mahajivaka continued to China. Kalacarya's name, possibly transliterated from Sanskrit meaning "black sage," suggests he might have been a Dravidian from Southern India. The presence of numerous Indian monks in Giao Chau accompanying Si Nhiep is noted in a letter from Vien Huy to Tuan Huc in 207 A.D.

The Li Huo Lun, a Buddhist primer, was written by Mouzi, a Chinese scholar who became a Buddhist in Giao Chau and later returned to China. Mouzi sought asylum in Giao Chau due to the turmoil in China after Emperor Lingdi's death. Despite being invited to a high-ranking post by Governor Shishee, Mouzi refused, preferring to study. After his mother's death, he dedicated himself to Buddhism and Taoism, using writings to defend Buddhism against those who saw it as a betrayal of the Classics.

The 3rd to 5th Centuries saw further figures like Kararuci and Dao Thanh who spread "lotus-meditation". This era also saw the writing of the Bach Hac Luan ("Discussion between Black and White") by the monk Hue Lam. Hue Lam rejected the Pure Land school, possibly seeking to reconcile Confucianism and Buddhism. The self-immolation of the monk Dam Hoang, and his visible ascent to the Pure Land, is interpreted as a monastic defense of Pure Land teaching and a refutation of Hue Lam. An exchange of letters between Chinese official Li Miao and two Vietnamese monks, Dao Cao and Phap Minh, reveals the impact of doctrinal controversy. Dao Cao was identified as a Vietnamese monk from Giao Chau. Hue Lam's criticisms in Bach Hac Luan, published in 435 under Song Emperor Wendi, coincided with official efforts to restrict pagoda construction and statue casting due to waste, adding context to the debates.

The first Ch'an (Zen) sect in Vietnam was founded by Vinitaruci and Phap Hien. Vinitaruci, an Indian monk tonsured in China, transmitted Chinese Ch'an to Vietnam around 580 A.D. He arrived at Pháp Vân Pagoda in March 580 and trained people there until his death in 591. His teachings emphasized the Prajña ('wisdom of emptiness') tradition and 'direct transmission' of bodhi ('enlightenment') from Master to disciple. He also translated prayers. Phap Hien succeeded Vinitaruci as the second Patriarch of this sect. The second Ch'an sect in Vietnam was named after its founder, Wu Yantong. Wu Yantong was a Chinese monk ordained by Bai Zhang. He arrived in Vietnam in 820 A.D. and transmitted his 'Buddha-heart seal' to Cam Thanh before his death in 826 A.D.. The sect emphasized Bai Zhang's doctrine of 'no-thinking'. Thien Hoi was the third Patriarch. The transmission lineage is traced through Chinese masters like Hui Neng and Ma Daoyi to Bai Zhang. Prominent monks from the Vinitaruci (Tỳ Ni Đa Lưu Chi) sect included Pháp Thuận and Ma Ha (tenth generation), Thien Ong and Sung Pham (eleventh generation), and Vạn Hạnh (twelfth generation).

Over the next eighteen centuries, Vietnam and China shared many common features of cultural, philosophical and religious heritage as a result of geographical proximity and northern parts of Vietnam being annexed twice by China. Vietnamese Buddhism is thus related to Chinese Buddhism in general, and to some extent reflects the formation of Chinese Buddhism after the Song dynasty. Meanwhile, in 875 new Cham king Indravarman II who was a devout Mahayana Buddhist, established Mahayana as Champa's state religion, and built the large monastery complex of Đồng Dương. His dynasty continued to rule Champa until the late 10th century.

Dynastic period

During the Đinh dynasty (968–980), Mahayana Buddhism was recognized by the state as an official religion (~971), reflecting the high esteem of Buddhist faith held by the Vietnamese monarchs, included some influences from the Vajrayana section. The Early Lê dynasty (980–1009) also afforded the same recognition to the Buddhist sangha. The growth of Buddhism during this time is attributed to the recruitment of erudite monks to the court as the newly independent state needed an ideological basis on which to build a country. Subsequently, this role was ceded to Confucianism.

Vietnamese Buddhism reached its zenith during the Lý dynasty (1009–1225), beginning with the founder Lý Thái Tổ, who was raised in a Buddhist temple. All of the emperors during the Lý dynasty professed and sanctioned Buddhism as the state religion. This endured with the Trần dynasty (1225–1400), but Buddhism had to share the stage with the emerging growth of Confucianism. During the Lý Buddhism saw significant development as Vietnamese society became more stable and the centralized state consolidated. The Buddhist belief in benevolence influenced royal policies. Buddhist activities and celebrations created unique cultural characteristics, with numerous festivals for the inauguration of pagodas and towers built by the state. Local pagodas were also built. This period saw the continued presence of the Vinitaruci and Wu Yantong sects. Some monks in the Wu Yantong sect are believed to have practiced Tantrism, including Không Lộ and Giác Hải, and possibly Bát Nhã from the Thảo Đường sect. The Pure Land sect and the cults of Avalokitesvara and Amitabha were also widespread and influenced Chan sects. Thiền Uyển Tập Anh, compiled during the later Trần period, is a valuable document for studying Buddhism under the Lý dynasty.

A major development under the Trần dynasty (1010-1225) was the establishment of the Trúc Lâm school of Zen. Emperor Trần Nhân Tông founded this sect after leaving his family in 1299, becoming its first ancestor. Monk Phap Loa and Monk Huyen Quang were the second and third ancestors, respectively. Existing historical documents on the origin of the Trúc Lâm sect are not fully clear. Emperor Trần Thái Tông (r. 1226–58) was a significant figure, writing several Buddhist articles and texts collected in Khóa Hư Lục (Instructions on Emptiness). His works included discussions on repentance (Lục Thời Sám Hối Khoa Nghi, Bình Đẳng Lễ Sám Văn) and observing precepts (Thụ Giới Luận, Giới Định Tuệ Luận). Thái Tông's views on meditation differed from Huineng's concept of simultaneous enlightenment, favoring a graduated path.

In the 15th century, the Later Lê dynasty (1428 to 1789), imitating Chinese emperors, privileged Neo-Confucianism and integrated Buddhism further into the state system, leading to state controls on Buddhism. During the later dynastic era Buddhism was increasingly critiqued by Neo-Confucian officials, such as Lê Quát, though it remained popular with the masses. Buddhism also influenced the thought of certain intellectuals, such as Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (1491–1585), an influential poet and philosopher who drew from Daoism, Buddhism and Neoconfucianism. His thought saw the three teachings as different ways of cultivating the Way. Other elite scholars like Nguyễn Trãi, Lương Thế Vinh, and Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (born 1607) also wrote Buddhist works. Emperor Lê Thánh Tông is known for his descriptions of hon (forsaken spirits) trapped in 'aimless wandering' due to having suffered an injustice in their past life. His work, Thập Giới Cô Hồn Quốc Ngữ Văn, on forsaken spirits, was inspired by the Buddhist work Khóa Mông Sơn Thí Thực. While both works deal with the same topic and source, Lê Thánh Tông excluded monarchs, lords, and warriors from the categories of forsaken spirits in his work. These works demonstrate that even while Buddhism lost political influence, it still significantly affected popular thought and appeared in scholarly and popular writings.

The late period of Vietnamese dynastic history (16th century to the early 19th century) is marked by the fragmentation of centralized authority and constant conflict between the weakened Lê dynasty, and numerous other Vietnamese dynastic powers, including the Mạc dynasty, the Trịnh lords, and the Nguyễn lords. This era is characterized by nominal imperial legitimacy under the Lê emperors, while real power was exercised by regional warlords. During this time, Buddhism continued to be promoted by some regional lords and intellectuals and continued to be widely practiced at the local level.

Nguyễn dynasty and early modern period

Tumultuous events in the latter half of the 18th century, such as peasant insurrections and the overthrow of regimes, created a mindset where Confucianism was no longer adequate, necessitating a new synthesis of the Three Teachings (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism). Scholar Ngô Thì Nhậm attempted this synthesis, though his ideas remained underpinned by Confucianism. He wrote several works, including Trúc Lâm Tông Chỉ Nguyên Thanh, dealing specifically with Buddhism. The Buddhist monk Toan Nhat was considered more successful, producing the work The Tale of Hua Su. This work, divided into four parts, incorporates Buddhist ideas and introduces themes unprecedented in Vietnamese literature, including anti-royalism (positing the teacher as more important than the emperor or parents), the necessary relation of labor to truth and mercy, and the necessary relation of armed struggle to authentic compassion. It contains episodes reflecting the epoch's realities, like war and injustice, and integrates Buddhist morality into contemporary thought.

It was not until the 19th century that Buddhism regained some stature under the Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1945), which accorded royal support. While the Nguyễn dynasty (1802-early 20th century) was characterized by a resurgent Confucianism, Buddhism still thrived during this time, and its influence can be seen in the elite literature of the time. Buddhist monks and nuns also worked hard to collect, compile and print the Vietnamese Buddhist canon, which included unique Vietnamese Buddhist works and histories. Some key figures involved in this work included Phuc Dien, An Thien, Thanh Dam, and Dieu Nghiem.

During the period of the Nguyễn dynasty as a protectorate of France (1887–1954), Buddhism developed an engaged Buddhist tendency towards a pro-active commitment to seeking solutions for sociopolitical problems. Despite the traditional Buddhist focus on release from the mundane world, monks made heroic contributions to anti-colonial insurrections. Examples include Vương Quốc Chính and Van Tru leading the 1898 revolt and Nguyễn Hữu Trí leading the 1916 revolt. Võ Trứ organized resistance between 1893–94, and Cao Văn Long spearheaded the 1916 attack on Saigon. Vuong Quoc Chinh, a Confucian scholar and Buddhist devotee, led the 1898 attack on Hanoi, mobilizing patriotic forces under religious cover.

A Buddhist revival movement (Chấn hưng Phật giáo) emerged in the 1920s in an effort to reform and strengthen institutional Buddhism, which had lost grounds to the spread of Christianity and the growth of other faiths during the French protectorate period. The movement continued into the 1950s and the republican era.

This Buddhist revival movement used vernacular Vietnamese for communication, publishing ideas in newspapers and magazines rather than relying solely on traditional Chinese texts. Buddhist reformers debated doctrinal questions and the religion's relationship with society, the nation, and science. The movement originated in Saigon, influenced by its exposure to modern currents and publications, including Pháp Âm and Phật Hóa Tân Thanh Niên (the first Buddhist periodicals in modern Vietnamese). Figures like Thiện Chiếu agitated for reform, publishing Phật Học Tổng Yếu (A General Summary of Buddhism) in 1929, which introduced novel ideas and took a critical stance against blind adherence to convention. This work sparked debates in various newspapers. The writings of monks like Thiện Chiếu were seen as an ideological prelude to the formation of large Buddhist organizations. Between 1930 and 1933, four Buddhist research associations were established in the South, including the Hội Nam Kỳ Nghiên Cứu Phật Học in Saigon, led by dignitaries such as Khánh Hòa, Huệ Quang, and Trí Thiền, and including figures like Tran Nguyen Chan. These associations published magazines (Từ Bi Âm, Bát Nhã Âm), collected texts, and opened schools. Laymen such as Nguyễn Năng Quốc, Thiều Chửu, and Trần Trọng Kim also played important roles. Buddhist associations in Northern and Central Vietnam also formed, with rapidly growing memberships. Although a nationwide association was prevented by the French, regional groups developed cooperation. Some Confucian scholars also supported the Buddhist movement and the publication of Buddhist papers. In order to manage the movement, the French officials placed key figures like Tran Nguyen Chan and Nguyễn Năng Quốc in leadership roles under French supervision.

Republican period

From 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was split into North and South Vietnam. In a country where surveys of the religious composition estimated the Buddhist majority to be approximately 70 to 80 percent, South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm's policies generated claims of religious bias. As a member of the Catholic Vietnamese minority, he pursued pro-Catholic policies that antagonized many Buddhists.

On 22 December 1953, the State of Vietnam recognized the Vietnamese Pure Land Buddhist Laity Association.

In May 1963, in the central city of Huế, where Diệm's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the archbishop, Buddhists were prohibited from displaying Buddhist flags during Vesak celebrations. Yet few days earlier, Catholics were allowed to fly religious flags at a celebration in honor of the newly seated archbishop. This led to widespread protest against the government; troops were sent in, and nine civilians were killed in the confrontations. This led to mass rallies against Diệm's government, termed as the Buddhist crisis. The conflicts culminated in Thích Quảng Đức's self-immolation by lighting himself on fire in protest of the persecution of Buddhists. President Diệm's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu favored strong-armed tactics, and Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces engaged in the Xá Lợi Pagoda raids, killing estimated hundreds. Dismayed by the public outrage, the U.S. government withdrew support for the regime. President Diệm was deposed and killed in the 1963 coup.

Political strength of the Buddhists grew in the 1960s as different schools and orders convene to form the Unified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam. Leaders of the Sangha like Thích Trí Quang had considerable sway in national politics, at times challenging the government.

With the fall of Saigon in 1975, the whole nation came under Communist rule; many religious practices including Buddhism were discouraged. In the North, the government had created the United Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, co-opting the clergy to function under government auspices, but in the South, the Unified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam still held sway and openly challenged the communist government. The Sangha leadership was thus arrested and imprisoned; Sangha properties were seized and the Sangha itself was outlawed. In its place was the newly created Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, designed as the final union of all Buddhist organizations, now under full state control.

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

The treatment of Buddhists started to ease since the reform era (Đổi mới) began in 1986. Since the Đổi Mới reforms, many reforms have allowed Buddhists to practice their religion relatively unhindered. However, no organized sangha is allowed to function independent of the state. It was not until 2007 that Pure Land Buddhism, the most widespread type of Buddhism practiced in Vietnam, was officially recognized as a religion by the government. Thích Quảng Độ, the Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Sangha, once imprisoned, remained under surveillance and restricted in his travels until his death.

Today, Buddhists are found throughout Vietnam, from North to South. Buddhism is the single largest organized religion in Vietnam, with somewhere between 45% and 55% of the population identifying themselves as Buddhist. Some argued that the number is higher than reported, as many declared themselves as atheists but still participate in Buddhist activities.

Though the Communist Party of Vietnam officially promotes atheism, it has usually leaned in favor of Buddhism, as Buddhism is associated with the long and deep history of Vietnam. Also, there have rarely been disputes between Buddhists and the Government; the Communist Government also sees Buddhism as a symbol of Vietnamese patriotism. Buddhist festivals are officially promoted by the Government and restrictions are few, in contrast to its Christian, Muslim and other religious counterparts.

Recently, the Communist regime in Vietnam allowed major Buddhist figures to enter the country. Thích Nhất Hạnh, an influential Buddhist figure revered both in Vietnam and worldwide, is among these. Distancing itself from the fellow communist neighbor China, the Government of Vietnam allows the publishing of books and stories of 14th Dalai Lama, who has a personal friendship with Thích Nhất Hạnh and were commonly critical of the Chinese regime after the 2008 Tibetan unrest, which was seen as an attempt to antagonize the Chinese Government and China as a whole, as Beijing still considers the Dalai Lama to be a terrorist.

The Vietnam Buddhist Sangha has placed much emphasis on promoting Buddhism to remote areas and ethnic minorities beyond the native Kinh people group, in contrary to other Buddhist governing body in the region. These efforts has given rise to more ethnic minorities embracing Buddhism in remote areas, especially in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam.

For example, Buddhists adherent in the Kon Tum province, a traditionally non-Buddhist region has grown to host 30,000 Buddhists since arriving in the 1930s, with 4,000 of them being of ethnic minority. There are 27 Pagodas and 6 Viharas in the region with 90 active Buddhist monastics today.

Separately, Dak Lak province of Vietnam has also seen a rise in Buddhist adherent with about 3,000 adherents coming from ethnic minority such as the E De people group.

Overseas

After the fall of South Vietnam to the Communist North in 1975 at the end of the Vietnam War, the first major Buddhist community appeared in North America. Since this time, the North American Vietnamese Buddhist community has grown to some 160 temples and centers. Proselytizing is not a priority.

The most famous practitioner of synchronized Vietnamese Thiền in the West is Thích Nhất Hạnh, who has authored dozens of books and founded the Plum Village Monastery in France together with his colleague, bhikṣuṇī and Zen Master Chân Không. According to Nguyen and Barber, Thích Nhất Hạnh's fame in the Western world as a proponent of engaged Buddhism and a new Thiền style has "no affinity with or any foundation in traditional Vietnamese Buddhist practices", and according to Alexander Soucy (2007), his style of Zen Buddhism is not reflective of actual Vietnamese Buddhism. These claims are contradicted by Elise Anne DeVido, who examined the life and legacy of Thích Nhất Hạnh and how we can understand his teachings in terms of its Vietnamese origins. Thích Nhất Hạnh also often recounts about his early Thiền practices in Vietnam in his Dharma talks, saying that he continued and developed this practice in the West, which has a distinctive Vietnamese Thiền flavor.

Thích Nhất Hạnh's Buddhist teachings have started to return to Vietnam, where the Buddhist landscape is now being shaped by the combined Vietnamese and Westernized Buddhism that is focused more on the meditative practices.

Revival of Buddhism

At the beginning of the 20th century, in response to the Buddhist revival movements in other countries, Vietnamese monks also advocated for the revitalization of Buddhism in Vietnam, which grew significantly across all three regions. This led to the establishment of modern Vietnamese Buddhism, and Buddhism gradually regained its rightful position, though it still was not the state religion in Vietnam.

Buddhism in each period of Vietnamese history has had the support of prominent scholars and figures. The Chánh Pháp magazine (issue 165) mentions the intellectual elites who accompanied Vietnamese Buddhism, including: the Zhuangyuan Lý Đạo Tái, Zhuangyuan Lê Ích Mộc, Vice Grand-Chancellor of Đại Việt Vũ Trinh, lay Buddhist and doctor Lê Đình Thám, Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Lê Mạnh Thát, and visual artist–valedictorian Vũ Tú. These individuals were the intellectual cream of their era, choosing to propagate the Dharma through wisdom and exceptional character. They embody the union of spiritual and worldly life, demonstrating a practical engagement with the world while remaining spiritually pure and detached – a shining pride in the flow of both Vietnamese Buddhism and intellectual heritage.