Demographics of Japan

Population

Census

Japan collects census information every five years, with censuses conducted by the Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The latest population census reflects the situation in 2020.

Population density

In 2025, Japan's population density was 338 people per square kilometer (875 people per square mile). It ranks 41st in a list of countries by population density. Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased by 15,000%, +12% per year compounded. Urban land prices generally increased 40% from 1980 to 1987. In the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period. For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach.

The result was lengthy commutes for many workers in the big cities, especially in Tokyo area/Kanto Region, where daily commutes of two hours each way are common. In 1991, as the bubble economy started to collapse, land prices began a steep decline, and within a few years fell 60% below their peak. After a decade of declining land prices, residents began moving back into central city areas, especially Tokyo's 23 wards, as evidenced by 2005 census figures. Despite nearly 70% of Japan being covered by forests, parks in many major cities—especially Tokyo and Osaka—are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities. As of 2014, parkland per inhabitant in Tokyo is 5.78 square meters, which is roughly half of the 11.5 square meters of Madrid.

National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions to try to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life. Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, Yokohama and Fukuoka, and to a lesser extent Kyoto, Osaka and Nagoya, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs.

Urban distribution

Japan has a high population concentration in urban areas on the plains since 75% of Japan's land area is made up of mountains, and also Japan has a forest cover rate of 68.5% (the only other developed countries with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden). The 2010 census shows 90.7% of the total Japanese population live in cities.

Japan is an urban society with about only 5% of the labor force working in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshu.

Metropolitan Tokyo–Yokohama, with its population of 35 million residents, is the world's most populous city. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: overcrowded cities and congested highways.

Age structure

The age structure of Japan is highly unique and is characterized by a "super-aged" society and it is the oldest population structure in the world. This demographic profile results from the combination of a high life expectancy and a persistently low total fertility rate (TFR). The age distribution is often described as a constrictive or inverted pyramid shape, with a narrow base (few young people) and a large bulge in the middle and upper ages.

Japan's population is aging faster than that of any other nation. The population of those 65 years or older roughly doubled in 24 years, from 7.1% of the population in 1970 to 14.1% in 1994. The same increase took 61 years in Italy, 85 years in Sweden, and 115 years in France. In 2014, 26% of Japan's population was estimated to be 65 years or older, and the Health and Welfare Ministry has estimated that over-65s will account for 40% of the population by 2060. The demographic shift in Japan's age profile has triggered concerns about the nation's economic future and the viability of its welfare state.

Population pyramids by prefecture

Sex ratio

Vital statistics

Statistics since 1873

Source: National Institute of Population and Social Security Research (IPSS) and Statistics Bureau of Japan Figures for 1947–1972 do not include Okinawa Prefecture.

Notable events in Japanese demographics:

• 1904–1905 – Russo-Japanese War
• 1923 – Great Kanto earthquake
• 1937–1945 – Second Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War
• 1947–1949 – Post-World War II baby boom
• 1948 – Abortion act came into force
• 1906, 1966 – Year of the Fire Horse

(p) – as of September 2026 (x) – October 2025–September 2026

View source data.

Current vital statistics

Total fertility rate by prefecture

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) exhibits notable regional disparities across Japan's prefectures. Historically, Tohoku and Hokkaido regions have maintained the highest TFR, while Okinawa and Kyushu regions have generally recorded the lowest.

In the 1970s, Akita Prefecture registered the nation's lowest rate (1.88, compared to Tokyo's 1.96). In recent years, this pattern has largely persisted. In 2021, Okinawa Prefecture led the nation with a TFR of 1.80, followed by Kagoshima and Miyazaki Prefectures. Tokyo Metropolis recorded the lowest TFR at 1.08, with Miyagi Prefecture and Hokkaido following.

The specific causes underlying these regional variations in birth rates are complex and not fully elucidated. For instance, the contrast between the high birth rates observed in the Kyushu and Okinawa regions and the low rates in Hokkaido and Tōhoku is often attributed to a combination of socio-economic and cultural factors. These include the prevalence of living with or near parents (multi-generational households), regional values concerning childbirth and child-rearing, and specific local traditions.

In large urban areas, including the Tokyo metropolitan area and other designated cities, the average age at first marriage and the average age at first birth are significantly higher than the respective prefectural and national averages. This delay in life milestones is considered a primary contributor to the lower birth rates observed in these regions. The rate of college graduates, particularly for women, is typically higher in these urban centers. This leads to an observed negative correlation between TFR and college graduates rates, suggesting that higher educational attainment is associated with lower fertility rates at the regional level.

Total fertility rate

Total Fertility rate before 1873

Source: Our world in data

The total fertility rate (TFR) in Japan before 1873 fluctuated. Several estimates for the period of the early to mid-19th century range from around 3.6 to 4.8 children per woman. During the 17th and 18th centuries, local studies suggest TFR was even lower in some areas, with completed family sizes often averaging 3 to 4 children.

In 2023, Japan's total fertility rate was 1.20, among the lowest in the world and far below the replacement rate of 2.1. In January 2023, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida pledged to take urgent steps to tackle Japan's declining birth rate, calling it "now or never" for Japan's aging society. He planned to double the budget for child-related policies by June 2023 and to set up a new government agency in April.

Life expectancy

Japan consistently ranks among the highest in the world for overall life expectancy, holding the top position for women and one of the highest for men. As of 2024 data, life expectancy is approximately 87.13 years for females and 81.09 years for males. Historically, life expectancy was much lower, with a significant increase after World War II.

Before World War II, Japan's life expectancy was significantly lower than its current, world-leading figures, but it was already steadily improving from the late 19th century onward. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, life expectancy remained under 50 years for both men and women. The progress during this period was primarily driven by initial reductions in mortality from infectious and parasitic diseases.

Following the end of World War II, Japan experienced a rapid and sustained increase in longevity, driven initially by a sharp decline in infectious disease mortality and later by advancements in chronic disease management. universal health coverage and government-led campaigns targeting non-communicable diseases (NCDs), notably through salt-reduction efforts to combat stroke.

Data source: National Institute of Population and Social Security Research

Historical data

Sources: Our World In Data and the United Nations.

1865–1949

1950–2020

Source: UN World Population Prospects

Marriages and divorce

Many Japanese lead a sexless marriage. Japan has the lowest level of couples having sex at 45 times per year, well below the global average of 103 times. With reasons of "tired" and "bored with intercourse" usually given as an answer. Despite this, Japan ranks as number two globally on the amount spent on pornography, after South Korea.

Ethnic groups

Naturalized Japanese citizens and native-born Japanese nationals with a multi-ethnic background are all considered to be Japanese in the population census of Japan.

Discrimination against ethnic minorities

Three native Japanese minority groups can be identified. The largest are the hisabetsu buraku or "discriminated communities", also known as the burakumin. These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as butchers, leatherworkers, funeral directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of India's Dalits. Historically, discrimination against these occupational groups was based on Buddhist prohibitions on killing and Shinto notions of pollution, and it was also a feature of governmental social control.

During the Edo period, such people were required to live in special buraku and, like the rest of the population, they were bound by sumptuary laws which were based on the inheritance of social class. The Meiji government abolished most of the derogatory names which were applied to these discriminated communities in 1871, but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination which was faced by the former outcasts and their descendants. However, the laws eliminated the economic monopoly which they had on certain occupations. The buraku continued to be treated as social outcasts and some casual interactions with the majority caste were perceived taboo until the era after World War II.

Estimates of their number range from 2 to 4 million, about 4% of the national population in 2022. Although the members of these marginalized communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, most of them live in urban ghettoes or they live in the traditional special hamlets which are located in rural areas, and as a result, membership in a marginalized group can be surmised from the location of a family's home, a family's occupation, the dialect which a family speaks, or the mannerisms which a family uses when it communicates with people. Checks on the backgrounds of families which were designed to ferret out buraku were commonly performed as a condition of marriage arrangements and employment applications, but in Osaka, they have been illegal since 1985.

Among the hisabetsu buraku, past and current discrimination against them has resulted in lower educational attainments and it has also resulted in a lower socioeconomic status, by contrast, the majority of Japanese have higher educational attainments and they also have a higher economic status. Movements with objectives which range from "liberation" to the encouragement of integration have attempted to change this situation, with some success. Nadamoto Masahisa of the Buraku History Institute estimates that as of 1998, between 60 and 80% of burakumin married a non-burakumin.

Ryukyuans

One of the largest minority groups among Japanese citizens is the Ryukyuan people. They are primarily distinguished by their use of several distinct Ryukyuan languages, though use of Ryukyuan is dying out. The Ryukyuan people and language originated in the Ryukyu Islands, which are in Okinawa prefecture and Kagoshima Prefecture.

Ainu

The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the Ainu, whose language is an isolate. Historically, the Ainu were an indigenous hunting and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshū as late as the Nara period (A.D. 710–94). As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, by the Tokugawa shogunate, the Ainu were pushed into the island of Hokkaido.

Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20,000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese. Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population.

Although no longer in daily use, the Ainu language is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations. Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism.

Hāfu

Hāfu (a kana rendition of "half") is a term used for people who are biracial and ethnically half Japanese. Of the one million children born in Japan in 2013, 2.2% had one or two non-Japanese parents.^[70] In 2016, one in forty-nine babies born in Japan were born into families with one non-Japanese parent. Most intermarriages in Japan are between Japanese men and women from other Asian countries, including China, the Philippines and South Korea. Southeast Asia also has significant populations of people with half-Japanese ancestry, particularly in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.

In the 1940s, biracial Japanese children (Ainoko), specifically Amerasian children, encountered social problems such as poverty, perception of impurity and discrimination due to negative treatment in Japan. In the 21st century, discrimination against hāfu occurs based on how different their identity, behavior and appearance is from a typical Japanese person.

Languages

The most widely-spoken language in Japan is Japanese, which is separated into several dialects, of which the Tokyo dialect considered to be Standard Japanese.

In addition to the Japanese language, Ryūkyūan languages are spoken in Okinawa and parts of Kagoshima in the Ryūkyū Islands. Along with Japanese, these languages are part of the Japonic language family, but they are separate languages, and are not mutually intelligible with Japanese, or with each other. All of the spoken Ryukyuan languages are classified by UNESCO as endangered.

In Hokkaidō, there is the Ainu language, which is spoken by the Ainu people, who are the indigenous people of the island. The Ainu languages, of which Hokkaidō Ainu is the only extant variety, are isolated and do not fall under any language family. Ever since the Meiji period, Japanese has become widely used among the Ainu people and consequently Ainu languages have been classified critically endangered by UNESCO.

Languages such as Orok, Evenki and Nivkh spoken in formerly Japanese controlled southern Sakhalin are becoming more endangered. After the Soviet Union took control of the region, speakers of these languages and their descendants migrated to mainland Japan and still exist in small numbers.

The Japanese society of Yamato people is linguistically homogeneous with small populations of Koreans (0.9 million), Chinese/Taiwanese (0.65 million), Filipino (306,000 some being Japanese Filipino; children of Japanese and Filipino parentage). This can be also said for Brazilians (300,000, many of whom are ethnically Japanese) as well as Peruvians and Argentineans of both Latin American and Japanese descent. Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryukyuans, who generally speak Japanese.

Citizenship

Japanese citizenship is conferred jure sanguinis, and monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth, although legally they are allowed to do so. This is because Japanese law does not recognize dual citizenship after the age of adulthood, and so people becoming naturalized Japanese citizens must relinquish their previous citizenship upon reaching the age of 22 years.

People taking Japanese citizenship must take a name using one or more of the Japanese character sets (hiragana, katakana, kanji). Names written in the Western alphabet, Korean alphabet, Arabic characters, etc., are not acceptable as legal names. Chinese characters are usually legally acceptable, as nearly all Chinese characters are recognized as valid by the Japanese government. Transliterations of non-Japanese names using katakana (e.g. スミス "Sumisu" for "Smith") are also legally acceptable.

However, some naturalizing foreigners feel that becoming a Japanese citizen should mean that they have a Japanese name and that they should abandon their foreign name, and some foreign residents do not wish to do this—although most Special Permanent Resident Koreans and Chinese already use Japanese names. Nonetheless, some 10,000 Zainichi Koreans naturalize every year. Approximately 98.6% of the population are Japanese citizens, and 99% of the population speak Japanese as their first language. Non-ethnic Japanese in the past, and to an extent in the present, also live in small numbers in the Japanese archipelago.

Religion

Shinto and Buddhism are Japan's two major religions. They have co-existed for more than a thousand years. Most Japanese people generally do not exclusively identify themselves as adherents of one religion, but rather incorporate various elements in a syncretic fashion. There are small Christian and other minorities as well, with the Christian population dating to as early as the 1500s, as a result of European missionary work before sakoku was implemented from 1635 to 1853.

Migration

Internal migration

In the 1980s, between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year. About 50% of these moves were within the same prefecture. The others were relocations from one prefecture to another. During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by urbanization as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education. Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades.

In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there. Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed lifestyle than could be had in larger cities. Young people continued to move to large cities to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities, a pattern known as U-turn, or to their prefecture of origin (referred to as "J-turn"), or even moved to a rural area for the first time ("I-turn").

In the 1980s, significant numbers of people left the largest central cities, Tokyo and Osaka, to move to suburbs within their metropolitan areas. In 1988, more than 500,000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73,000 for the year. Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36,000 in the same year.

With a decreasing total population, internal migration results in only eight prefectures showing an increase in population. These are Okinawa (2.9%), Tokyo (2.7%), Aichi (1.0%), Saitama (1.0%), Kanagawa (0.9%), Fukuoka (0.6%), Shiga (0.2%), and Chiba (0.1%).

Emigration

In 1975, about 663,300 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75,000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status. In 1990, more than 200,000 Japanese went abroad for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments. As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historical insularity. By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad.

Note: The above data shows the number of Japanese nationals living overseas. It was published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.

Immigration

According to the Japanese immigration centre, the number of foreign residents in Japan has steadily increased, and the number of foreign residents exceeded 4,125,395 people in December 2025.

In December 2025, the number of foreigners in Japan was 4,125,395. This includes 356,579 Filipinos, many of whom are married to Japanese nationals and possessing some degree of Japanese ancestry, 930,428 Chinese, 681,100 Vietnamese, 407,341 South Koreans, 300,992 Nepalis and 266,069 Indonesians. Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, Filipinos, Nepalis and Indonesians account for about 71.33% of foreign residents in Japan.

The current issue of the shrinking workforce in Japan alongside its aging population has resulted in a recent need to attract foreign labour to Japan. Reforms which took effect in 2015 relaxed visa requirements for "Highly Skilled Foreign Professionals" and create a new type of residence status with an unlimited period of stay.

The number of naturalized individuals peaked in 2003 at 17,633, before declining to 9,258 by 2025. Most of the decline is accounted for by a steep reduction in the number of Japan-born Koreans taking Japanese citizenship. Historically the bulk of those taking Japanese citizenship have not been foreign-born immigrants, but Japanese-born descendants of Koreans and Taiwanese who lost their citizenship in the Japanese Empire in 1947 as part of the American Occupation policy for Japan.

Japanese statistical authorities do not collect information on ethnicity, only nationality. As a result, both native and naturalized Japanese citizens are counted in a single group. Although official statistics therefore show homogeneity, other analyses describe the population as "multi-ethnic".

Net Migration

Foreign residents

In December 2025, there were 4,125,395 foreign residents in Japan, representing 3.35% of the Japanese population. Foreign Army personnel, of which there were up to 430,000 from the SCAP (post-occupation, United States Forces Japan) and 40,000 BCOF in the immediate post-war years, have not been at any time included in Japanese foreign resident statistics. Most foreign residents in Japan come from other Asian countries, particularly from China, Vietnam, South Korea, the Philippines, Nepal, and Indonesia.

A number of long-term resident Koreans in Japan today retain familial links with the descendants of Koreans, that either immigrated voluntarily or were forcibly relocated during the Japanese occupation of Korea. Within this group, a number hold Special Permanent Resident status, granted under the terms of the June 1965 Normalisation Treaty between South Korea and Japan. In many cases special residents, despite being born in Japan and speaking Japanese, have chosen not to take advantage of the mostly automatic granting of citizenship to special resident applicants.

In 1947, the Japanese government started to repatriate Korean nationals, who had nominally been granted Japanese citizenship during the years of military occupation. When the Treaty of San Francisco came into force many ethnic Koreans lost their Japanese citizenship from April 1952, and with it the right to welfare grants, to hold a government job of any kind or to attend Japanese schools. In 1953, the government contrived, with the help of the Red Cross, a scheme to "repatriate" Korean residents, who mainly were from the Southern Provinces, to their "home" of North Korea. Between 1959 and 1984, 93,430 people used this route, of whom 6,737 were Japanese or Chinese dependents. Most of these departures – 78,276 – occurred before 1962.

All non-Japanese without special residential status (people whose residential roots go back to before WWII) are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards. From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the fingerprinting that accompanied registration every five years.

Opponents of fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals. The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration, which until a law reform in 1989 was usually required every six months for anybody from the age of 16. Those refusing fingerprinting were denied re-entry permits, thus depriving them of freedom of movement.

Of these foreign residents below, the new wave which started in 2014, came to Japan as students or trainees. These foreigners are registered under student visa or trainee visa, which gives them the student residency status. Most of these new foreigners are under this visa. Almost all of these foreign students and trainees will return to their home country after three to four years (one valid period); few students extend their visa. Vietnamese make up the largest increase. Burmese, Cambodians, Filipinos and Chinese are also increasing.

Asian migrant wives of Japanese men have also contributed to the foreign-born population in Japan. Many young single Japanese male farmers choose foreign wives, mainly from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China and South Korea, due to a lack of interest from Japanese women living a farming life. Migrant wives often travel as mail-order brides as a result of arranged marriages with Japanese men.

Table: numbers of foreign nationals in Japan

Foreign residents in 2015

There was an increase of 110,358 foreign residents from 2014 to 2015. Vietnamese made the largest proportion of these new foreign residents. Nepalese, Filipino, Chinese and Taiwanese are also significant in numbers. Together these countries made up 91,126 or 82.6% of all new residents from 2014 to 2015. The majority of these immigrants will only remain in Japan for a maximum of five years, as many of them have entered Japan in order to complete trainee programmes. Once they complete their programmes, they will be required to return to their home countries.

In December 2014, there were 2,121,831 foreigners residing in Japan, 677,019 of whom were long-term residents in Japan. The majority of long-term residents were from Asia, totalling 478,953. Chinese made up the largest portion of them with 215,155, followed by Filipinos with 115,857, and Koreans with 65,711. Thai, Vietnamese, and Taiwanese long-term residents totaled 47,956. Those from other Asian countries totaled 34,274. The Korean figures do not include zainichi Koreans with tokubetsu eijusha ("special permanent resident") visas, of whom there were 354,503, of a total of 358,409 of all nationalities with such visas. The number of permanent residents declined over the previous five years due to high cost of living.

Foreign residents in 2021

In 2019, the number of foreign residents of Japan reached a high of 2.93 million before falling to 2.76 million at the end of 2021. The number of foreign workers was 1.46 million in 2018. 29.7% were in the manufacturing sector. 389,000 are from Vietnam and 316,000 are from China.

In April 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted. The revision clarifies and better protects the rights of foreign workers. Japan formally accepts foreign blue-collar workers. This helps reduce labour shortage in certain sectors of the economy. The reform changes the status of foreign workers to regular employees and they can obtain permanent residence status.

The reform includes a new visa status called tokutei gino (特定技能, "designated skills"). In order to qualify, applicants must pass a language and skills test, level N4 or higher of the Japanese-Language Proficiency Test. In the old "Technical Trainee programme" a foreign employee was tied to their employer. This caused numerous cases of exploitation. The revision gives foreign workers more freedom to leave and change their employer.