Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Theravada Buddhism developed from the Pāli Canon in Sri Lanka Tamrashatiya school and spread throughout Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, Sarvastivada Buddhism was transmitted from North India through Central Asia to China. Direct contact between Central Asian and Chinese Buddhism continued throughout the 3rd to 7th centuries, much into the Tang period. From the 4th century onward, Chinese pilgrims like Faxian (395–414) and later Xuanzang (629–644) started to travel to northern India in order to get improved access to original scriptures. Between the 3rd and 7th centuries, parts of the land route connecting northern India with China was ruled by the Xiongnu, Han dynasty, Kushan Empire, the Hephthalite Empire, the Göktürks, and the Tang dynasty. The Indian form of Buddhist tantra (Vajrayana) reached China in the 7th century. Tibetan Buddhism was likewise established as a branch of Vajrayana, in the 8th century.

But from about this time, the Silk road trade of Buddhism began to decline with the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana (e.g. Battle of Talas), resulting in the Uyghur Khaganate by the 740s. Indian Buddhism declined due to the resurgence of Hinduism and the Muslim conquest of India. Tang-era Chinese Buddhism was briefly repressed in the 9th century (but made a comeback in later dynasties). The Western Liao was a Buddhist Sinitic dynasty based in Central Asia, before Mongol invasion of Central Asia. The Mongol Empire resulted in the further Islamization of Central Asia. They embraced Tibetan Buddhism starting with the Yuan dynasty (Buddhism in Mongolia). The other khanates, the Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate, and Golden Horde eventually converted to Islam (Religion in the Mongol Empire#Islam).

Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese, Taiwanese and Southeast Asian traditions of Buddhism continued. As of 2019, China by far had the largest population of Buddhists in the world at nearly 250 million; Thailand comes second at around 70 million (see Buddhism by country).

Northern transmission

The Buddhism transmitted to China is based on the Sarvastivada school, with translations from Sanskrit to the Chinese languages and Tibetic languages. These later formed the basis of Mahayana Buddhism. Japan and Korea then borrowed from China. Few remnants of the original Sanskrit remained. These constituted the 'Northern transmission'.

First contacts

Buddhism entered China via the Silk Road. Buddhist monks travelled with merchant caravans on the Silk Road to preach their new religion. The lucrative Chinese silk trade along this trade route began during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), with voyages by people like Zhang Qian establishing ties between China and the west.

Alexander the Great established Hellenistic kingdoms (323 BC – 63 BC) and trade networks extending from the Mediterranean to Central Asia (furthest eastern point being Alexandria Eschate). The Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms (250 BC-125 BC) in Afghanistan and the later Indo-Greek Kingdoms (180 BC-10 CE) formed one of the first Silk Road stops after China for nearly 300 years. One of the descendant Greek kingdoms, the Dayuan (Ta-yuan; Chinese: 大宛; "Great Ionians"), were defeated by the Chinese in the Han-Dayuan war. The Han victory in the Han–Xiongnu War further secured the route from northern nomads of the Eurasian Steppe.

The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road started in the 1st century CE with a semi-legendary account of an embassy sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75 CE):

It may be assumed that travelers or pilgrims brought Buddhism along the Silk Roads, but whether this first occurred from the earliest period when those roads were open, ca. 100 BC, must remain open to question. The earliest direct references to Buddhism concern the 1st century AD, but they include hagiographical elements and are not necessarily reliable or accurate.

Extensive contacts however started in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Greco-Buddhist Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean.

Gaochang

Gaochang, strategically located in the middle of the Silk Road, was a crucial center for the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road. Surrounded by major trade routes and diverse ethnic groups, it became a melting pot of traditions. Buddhism thrived in this environment, shaped by Indian, Central Asian, and Han Chinese influences. As Buddhist teachings moved eastward and westward, Gaochang played a crucial role in their transmission and adaptation. This cultural exchange enriched its religious landscape, blending local traditions with Buddhist practices, making Gaochang a significant center for Buddhism along the Silk Road.

The exact time Buddhism reached the Turpan region is unknown, but it was likely introduced through the Chesi people from the Western Regions. The Cheshi people of Turpan spoke Tocharian languages and established a state with Jiaohe City as its capital. During Emperor Xuan’s reign (92–49 BCE), it split into Anterior and Rear Cheshi due to Han-Xiongnu conflicts. From 67 B.C., Han settlers arrived, and by 327 A.D., Gaochang Jun became a migrant refugee. Ruled by Zhang, Ma, and Qu dynasties, it was unified by the Tang in 640 A.D., with Han Chinese making up 70–75% of the population. Regarding Buddhism, Cheshi Buddhism and Gaochang Buddhism developed differently. Cheshi Buddhism was Hinayana and non-Han, while Gaochang Buddhism was Mahayana, aligned with Chinese traditions. Chinese culture that was localized in Gaochang during the and Wei Dynasties, played a huge role in the development of Gaochang Buddhism.

During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (220–589), Gaochang Buddhism was influenced by Indian and Qiuci Buddhism. Many Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese and introduced through places like Dunhuang, making Buddhism more accessible to the local people. Excavations from Turpan since the 1900s confirm Han Buddhism's strong presence, with 153 of 2,300 manuscripts found by a German expedition, many written or translated by inner-land monks between the 4th and 7th centuries. During the Jin dynasty (266–420) (317–420), Turpan’s Buddhist communities maintained close ties with inner China, further inheriting Han Buddhist traditions. As a result, Buddhism spread beyond the elites, blending with local customs and Taoism.

Missionaries

In the middle of the 2nd century, the Kushan Empire under king Kaniṣka from its capital at Purushapura (modern Peshawar), India expanded into Central Asia. As a consequence, cultural exchanges greatly increased with the regions of Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand (all in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang). Central Asian Buddhist missionaries became active shortly thereafter in the Chinese capitals of Loyang and Nanjing, where they distinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Nikāya and Mahayana scriptures. Thirty-seven of these early translators of Buddhist texts are known.

• An Shigao, a Parthian prince who made the first known translations of Nikāya Buddhist texts into Chinese (148–170)
• Lokakṣema, a Kushan and the first to translate Mahayana scriptures into Chinese (167–186)
• An Xuan, a Parthian merchant who became a monk in China in 181
• Zhi Yao (c. 185), a Kushan monk in the second generation of translators after Lokakṣema.
• Zhi Qian (220–252), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in China during 168–190
• Kang Senghui (247–280), born in Jiaozhi close to modern Hanoi in what was then the extreme south of the Chinese empire, and a son of a Sogdian merchant
• Dharmarakṣa (265–313), a Kushan whose family had lived for generations at Dunhuang
• Kumārajīva (c. 401), a Kuchean monk and one of the most important translators
• Fotudeng (4th century), a Central Asian monk who became a counselor to the Chinese court
• Bodhidharma (440–528), the founder of Chan Buddhism. a debunked 17th-century apocryphal story found in a manual called Yijin Jing claimed that he originated of the physical training of the Shaolin monks that led to the creation of Shaolin kung fu. This erroneous account only became popularized in the 20th century. According to the earliest reference to him, by Yang Xuanzhi, he was a monk of Central Asian origin whom Yang Xuanshi met around 520 at Loyang. Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather ill-tempered, profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian. He is referred to as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" (碧眼胡:Bìyǎn hú) in Chinese Chan texts.
• Five monks from Gandhāra who traveled in 485 CE to the country of Fusang ("the country of the extreme east" beyond the sea, probably Japan), where they introduced Buddhism.
• Jñānagupta (561–592), a monk and translator from Gandhāra
• Prajñā (c. 810), a monk and translator from Kabul who educated the Japanese Kūkai in Sanskrit texts

Additionally, Indian monks from central regions of India were also involved in the translation and spread of Buddhists texts into central and east Asia. Among these Indian translators and monks include:

• Dharmakṣema – 4th and 5th-century Buddhist monk from Magadha responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit texts in Chinese including the Mahayana Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra.
• Dhyānabhadra – 14th-century monk from Nalanda monastery who travelled to China and Korea during the period of the Yuan dynasty. Founded the Hoemsa temple in Korea.
• Guṇabhadra – 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist translator from Central India who was active in China
• Paramartha – 6th-century Indian monk and translator from Ujjain and patronised by Emperor Wu of Liang

Early translations into Chinese

The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian prince-turned-monk, An Shigao. He worked to establish Buddhist temples in Luoyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. An Shigao translated Buddhist texts on basic doctrines, meditation and abhidharma. An Xuan, a Parthian layman who worked alongside An Shigao, also translated an early Mahayana Buddhist text on the bodhisattva path.

Mahayana Buddhism was first widely propagated in China by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (active ca. 164–186 CE), who came from the ancient Buddhist kingdom of Gandhāra. Lokakṣema translated important Mahayana sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahayana sūtras on topics such as samādhi and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. These translations from Lokakṣema continue to give insight into the early period of Mahayana Buddhism.

By the 8th century CE, the School of Esoteric Buddhism became prominent in China due to the careers of two South Asian monks, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra. Vajrabodhi or Vajrabuddhi was the son of a South Indian aristocrat and is credited for bringing the theological developments from Bengal to East China. Buddhist scholar Lü Xiang, and lay disciple of Vajrabodhi writes about Vajrabodhi's accomplishments, including translating Buddhist texts such as ‘The Ritual for Practicing the Samadhi of Vairocana in the Yoga of the Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra’ etc.

Though Vajrabodhi is credited for bringing Esoteric Buddhism into China, it was his successor, Amoghavajra, who saw the firm establishment of Esoteric Buddhism as a school of thought in China. Amoghavajra was the son of a South Asian father and Sodigan mother and brought his learnings from Sri Lanka to practice in China. He too translated several texts but is mostly known for this prominent position in the Royal Tang Court. Ge performed several Esoteric rituals for the royals and also established a separate doctrine of Buddhism for the deity Manjusri.

Chinese pilgrims to India

From the 4th century onward, The Chinese pilgrims to India played a significant role in the cultural and religious exchange between China and India, traveling along the Silk Road to gain better access to the original Buddhist scriptures. Zhu Zixing, often regarded as the first Chinese to be ordained into Buddhism, embarked on a significant journey to Central Asia around 260 CE in search of Buddhist teachings. His pilgrimage marks an early and important moment in the history of Buddhism’s introduction into China.

Beginning in the 4th century CE, Chinese Buddhist monks undertook pilgrimages to India to deepen their understanding of Buddhism. One of the earliest and most significant pilgrims was Faxian (395-414), who journeyed along the Silk Road in search of Buddhist scriptures. His travels, extensively documented in A record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, offer valuable insights into the cultures and religious practices of the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 5th centuries. Faxian visited important Buddhist sites and monasteries, spending years studying under Indian scholars before returning to China via the sea route. Later pilgrims, such as Xuanzang (629-644) and the Korean monk Hyecho, continued this tradition, further strengthening the cultural and religious exchange between India and East Asia.

Xuanzang, the most famous Chinese pilgrim, spent 17 years travelling across Central Asia and India in the 7th sanctuary, seeking Buddhist scriptures. His journey, recorded in Records of the Western Regions offers insights into the era’s political, cultural, and religious landscape. Bringing back numerous texts, he pioneered a “new translation period” that shaped Chinese Buddhism. The transmission of Buddhist teachings through such pilgrimages played a crucial role in the flourishing of Buddhism in China.

Role of merchants

During the fifth and sixth centuries C.E., merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism to be an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Roads. These monasteries were not only religious centers but also crucial to the economic interests of the cities that housed them. In return, the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to sojourn. Merchants then spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they travelled. Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered and over time, their cultures were based on Buddhism. Because of this, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the invasion of Islam in Central Asia.

By the 8th century, Buddhism began to be spread across Asia, largely by the influence of healers and wonder-workers. These groups of people practised a form of Buddhism that was to be called "Vajrayana". This cult was influenced by the practice of Tantra in parts of India and would later go on to influence the East Asian society into adopting forms of Buddhism stemming from this core school of belief. This time, the transmission was happening via the sea routes.

Decline in Central Asia and Xinjiang

Buddhism in Central Asia began to decline in the 7th century during the course of the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana. This was an important moment in the history of the region. After the Battle of Talas of 751 between the Abbasid Caliphate and the Tang, Central Asian Buddhism went into serious decline and eventually resulted in the extinction of the local Tocharian Buddhist culture in the Tarim Basin during the 8th century. This change happened not just because of religious conflict, but also due to political changes, shifts in trade routes, and new alliances that favored the spread of Islam.

The increasing Muslim dominance of these Silk Roads made it more difficult for Buddhist monks and pilgrims to travel between India and China. By the end of the 8th century, the regular exchange of Buddhist teachings and texts between Indian and Chinese monks came to a stop.

From the 9th century onward, the various schools of Buddhism which survived began to evolve independently of one another. Chinese Buddhism developed into an independent religion with distinct spiritual elements. Indigenous Buddhist traditions like Pure Land Buddhism and Chan Buddhism emerged in China. China became the center of East Asian Buddhism, following the Chinese Buddhist canon, as Buddhism spread to Japan and Korea from China.

Even though Buddhism faded in many parts of Central Asia, it survived in a few areas. In the eastern Tarim Basin, it lasted into the later medieval period under the Uyghur Qocho Kingdom. Important Buddhists sites like the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves continued to be used. Buddhism soon became one of the religions in the Mongol Empire and the Chagatai Khanate, and via the Oirats eventually the religion of the Kalmyks, who settled at the Caspian in the 17th century. Otherwise, Central Asian Buddhism survived mostly in Tibet and in Mongolia.

Outside East Asia, Buddhism continued mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, where it developed strong local forms and kept many traditional teachings alive. These areas helped preserve the Buddhist tradition even after it had mostly disappeared from Central Asia.

Artistic influences

Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of Serindian art from the 2nd to the 11th century CE in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the art of the Gandhāra district of what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Highly sinicized forms of syncretism can also be found on the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin, such as in Dunhuang. Silk Road artistic influences can be found as far as Japan to this day, in architectural motifs or representations of Japanese gods.