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Yaoshi Bao Chan

Chinese Buddhist repentance ritual

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History

Overview of repentance rites

Repentance rites originated from confession rituals, known as Uposatha, in Indian Buddhism, where monastics would confess offenses and recite the Pāṭimokkha on the Uposatha days (full and new–moon days). As early as the first century BCE before Buddhism was transmitted to China, several repentance scriptures in Sanskrit were already in circulation in India, with a key example being the Triskandhadharma Sūtra (三品悔過經), which was later translated to Chinese by the eminent monk Dharmarakṣa and constitutes a chapter in the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra. Two of the earliest repentance scriptures translated into Chinese approximately in the middle of the second century CE are the Foshuo asheshiwang jing (佛說阿闍世王經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of King Ajātaśatru Sūtra"), which was translated by An Shigao, and the Foshuo shelifu huiguo jing (佛說舍利弗悔過經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of Śāripūtra Repentance Sūtra"), which was translated by Lokakṣema. Consequently, over the next four centuries, a total of sixty–one repentance scriptures were translated into Chinese.

By the Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420–589), new repentance rituals also began to be composed by monks based on popular scriptures. One prominent example is the Fahua sanmei chanyi (法華三昧懺儀, lit: "Lotus Samādhi Repentance Ritual"), which was compiled by the eminent monk and founder of the Tiantai tradition, Zhiyi (智顗, 538–597). The Fahua sanmei chanyi (Japanese: Hokke zanmai sengi) is still practiced in modern times by contemporary Chinese Tiantai monastics as well as Japanese Tendai monastics. Another notable example of a repentance rite that was composed during this period is the Liang Huang Bao Chan (梁皇寶懺, lit: "Repentance Ritual of the Emperor of Liang"). This extensive ritual, which was originally composed by the eminent Chan Buddhist master Baozhi (寶志, 418–514, traditionally regarded as an emanation of Shiyimian Guanyin) on behalf of Emperor Wu of Liang, has remained highly popular in modern Chinese Buddhist practice and is frequently referred to as the "king of repentance rites" (懺法之王) among practitioners. It is typically performed on an annual or even more frequent basis in most Chinese Buddhist temples, sometimes as part of a larger event like the Shuilu Fahui ceremony. By the Sui dynasty (581–618), repentance rituals were so popular that they were also regularly performed by the imperial court. For instance, the Xu gaoseng zhuan (續高僧傳, lit: "Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks") by the eminent monk Daoxuan (道宣, 596–667), who was a Patriarch of the Nanshan Vinaya tradition, records that Emperor Wen of Sui performed repentance ceremonies whenever he hosted vegetarian feasts by personally holding the incense burner while his official Xiao Cong (萧琮, 558–607), who was previously the Emperor of the Liang dynasty, provided him with guidance on how to manage affairs of state.

As the popularity and number of repentance rites continued to grow, eminent Sui and Tang dynasty (618–907) Buddhist masters and patriarchs such as Zhiyi, Daoxuan and Huineng started to proposed several different schemes of classifying the different rites. In general, these schemes can generally be classified into three types of repentance rituals depending on the severity of the offenses and purposes:

  • Communal repentance (作法懺悔): Solely for Buddhist monks and nuns who have violated any of their precepts, except the four parajika offenses which entail expulsion from the sangha. Usually held on the days of new and full moon or Uposatha, the precepts are recited according to the seven categories. At the end of each category, the Buddhist monks and nuns are expected to confess if they have violated any of the precepts; otherwise, they remain silent.
  • Visionary or auspicious sign repentance (觀相懺悔): Can be practiced by both monastics and lay people, especially when lay people want to undergo ordination with the Bodhisattva precepts of the Brahmajāla Sūtra. For monastics, the Bodhisattva precepts are transmitted last as part of their ordination. This type of repentance is usually performed in order to receive the Bodhisattva precepts or for purification purposes if a monastic or lay person has violated any of their precepts, except the five grave offenses.
  • Unborn or markless repentance (無生懺悔 or 無相懺悔): Cultivation of this form of repentance mostly entails giving rise to bodhicitta, having compassion for all sentient beings, and deeply examining the source of transgression to see that all dharms, including the nature of one's transgression or offense, is itself empty and has no one to cling to. According to both Zhiyi and Huineng, this form of repentance could eradicate innumerable eons of past major transgressions.

Repentance rituals continued to be highly popular in the succeeding Song (960–1279), Yuan (1271–1368), Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties, with numerous repentance rituals being composed by various eminent monks and being encoded into standardized monastic regulatory codes. For instance, the Song dynasty Tiantai patriarch Siming Zhili (四明知禮, 960–1028) composed an influential repentance ritual called the Dabei Chan (大悲懺, lit: "Great Compassion Repentance") based around the practice of the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, which remains one of the most popular repentance rites in contemporary Chinese Buddhism, being performed at least once a month or more in most Chinese Buddhist temples. Another example is the Dizang Bao Chan (地藏寶懺, "Jewelled Repentance of Dizang"), which was originally composed by the eminent Ming dynasty monk Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599–1655), who was a Patriarch of both the Chinese Pure Land and Tiantai traditions. In contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice, various different repentance rites are typically practiced throughout the year, sometimes as independent rituals and other times as part of larger events such as the Shuilu Fahui ceremony.

Worship of Bhaiṣajyaguru (Yaoshi)

Names and epithets

In Chinese Buddhist practice, the Buddha Bhaiṣajyaguru is commonly referred to as simply Yaoshi Fo (藥師佛), meaning "Medicine Teacher Buddha", or Yaoshi Rulai (藥師如來), meaning "Medicine Teacher Tathāgata". In many liturgies and ritual contexts, Yaoshi's name is also frequently chanted as either Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai (藥師琉璃光如來), meaning "Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light", or Xiaozai Yanshou Yaoshi Fo (消灾延壽藥師佛), meaning "Yaoshi Fo who averts calamities and extends lifespans".

Translation of sūtras

Worship of Yaoshi in China begin during the Eastern Jin dynasty (266–420) with the translation of the Foshuo guanding bachu guozui shengsi dedu jing (佛說灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of the Abhiṣeka that Eliminates Past Offenses and Causes One to Attain Liberation from Birth and Death Sūtra") by the Kuchean monk Po–Śrīmitra. More scriptures regarding Yaoshi were transmitted to China in the succeeding centuries, namely the Foshuo Yaoshi liuli guang jing (佛說藥師琉璃光經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of Yaoshi of Lapis Lazuli Light Sūtra"), which was translated in 457 by the monk Huijian (慧簡) during the Liu–Song dynasty (420–479), and the Yaoshi Rulai benyuan gongde jing (藥師如來本願功德經 lit: "The Merits of Yaoshi Rulai's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated in 615 by the monk Dharmagupta during the Sui dynasty (581–618).

The succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907) saw a further flowering of Buddhism as more scriptures were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. In particular, numerous esoteric and tantric scriptures were translated as part of this milieu, correlating with the rise in prominence of Zhenyan Buddhism during this period as various eminent tantric masters like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra were patronized by the Tang imperial court. Some examples of new scriptures that regarding Yaoshi that were translated during this time include:

  • Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai xiaozai chunan niansong yigui (藥師琉璃光如來消災除難念誦儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual for the Recitation to Avert Calamities and Remove DIfficulties of Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light"), which is attributed to Yixing in the Taishō Tripiṭaka
  • Yaoshi Rulai niansong yigui (藥師如來念誦儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual for the Recitation of Yaoshi Rulai"), by Amoghavajra
  • Yaoshi Rulai niansong fa (藥師如來念誦法, lit: "Method of the Recitation of Yaoshi Rulai"), by Vajrabodhi

Two other sūtras translated during this time that would become very influential in Chinese Buddhist practice are the Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai benyuan gongde jing (藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經, lit: "The Merits of Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated by the eminent monk and Patriarch of the Weishi tradition Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664), and the Yaoshi Liuli Guang Qifo benyuan gongde jing (藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經, lit: "The Merits of the Seven Yaoshi Buddhas of Lapis Lazuli Light's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated by the monk and travel writer Yijing (義淨, 635–713). Xuanzang's translation in particular would become particularly popular and is widely referred to in Chinese Buddhist practice as the Yaoshi jing (藥師經, lit: "Yaoshi Sūtra").

Practices of Yaoshi devotion

Many sūtras describe Yaoshi as having been a Bodhisattva who made twelve great vows about blessing sentient beings as well as relieving the physical and mental suffering caused by the ignorance in their hearts. As his name suggests, he is commonly associated with healing and medicine, and is frequently entreated to avert disasters and prolong one's lifespan. Upon achieving Buddhahood, Yaoshi became the Buddha of the Eastern Pure Land of Vaiḍūryanirbhāsa, which means "Pure Lapis Lazuli". There, he is attended to by two Bodhisattvas symbolizing the light of the sun and the light of the moon respectively: Sūryaprabha (日光菩薩) and Candraprabha (月光菩薩). Iconographic depictions of Yaoshi also frequently depict him together with the Twelve Heavenly Generals, a group of yakshas generals who pledged to protect devotees who practiced Yaoshi's Dharma Door, as well as Eight Great Bodhisattvas mentioned in the Yaoshi jing: Guanyin, Maitreya, Mañjuśrī, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Ratnacandana, Akṣayamati, Bhaiṣajyarāja and Bhaiṣajyasamudgata. Chinese Buddhist traditions ascribes the 30th day of the ninth lunar month according to the Chinese calendar as Yaoshi's "Birthday", and during this day, monastics and lay followers typically perform rituals and other practices devoted to Yaoshi. In Chinese Buddhist temples, Yaoshi is frequently enshrined as either one out of three Buddha statues in the Daxiongbao Hall (the other two being of Amitābha and Śākyamuni) or in a dedicated hall devoted to him called the Yaoshi Hall.

A common practice of Yaoshi devotion is the creation of images and statues of Yaoshi. The earliest known example is an image of Yaoshi carved in a small niche on the upper part of the western wall of Cave 11 at the Yungang Grottoes, which dates back to the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–535). Numerous other extant statues of Yaoshi that were made during the Northern Wei and Northern Qi (550–577) dynasties can be found in various sites throughout China, in some cases even including inscriptions recording the name of the people who made them. By the Tang dynasty, Yaoshi images became more common and their uses became more widespread. Multiple historical records describe not only government officials and monks and nuns, but also ordinary citizens commissioning and creating Yaoshi statues for a variety of purposes, including wishing for blessings for pregnancies as well as dedication towards deceased loved ones. This indicated that belief and faith in Yaoshi was already widespread throughout all social strata of Chinese society by the Tang dynasty. The practice of creating Yaoshi statues remained popular after the Tang dynasty into contemporary times, with numerous extant statues in sites like the Dazu Rock Carvings dating to subsequent dynasties. Aside from statues, paintings and embroidered images of Yaoshi were also common as a way of memorializing the deceased and praying for blessings. For example, when the Tang Emperor Dezong's daughter, Princess Tang'an, passed away, the Emperor ordered the national artisans to embroider Yaoshi's image "using exquisite colors to radiate brilliance, in order to bring good fortune and to guide the deceased." In another example, when the Tang poet and official Lü Wen (呂溫, 772–811) was sent to Tibet as an envoy in 804, his wife's embroidered an image of Yaoshi to seek Yaoshi's protection for him. After the Tang dynasty, Yaoshi continued to remain a popular subject in Buddhist paintings even until the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). For instance, the famous Song dynasty poet Su Shi (蘇軾,1037-1101), also widely known as Su Dongpo (蘇東坡), who commissioned a painting of Yaoshi after his grandchildren were cured of a prolonged illness. He also wrote a eulogy of praise in commemoration of Yaoshi and the event:

佛弟子蘇龠，與其妹德孫，病久不愈。其父過，母範氏，供養祈禱藥師琉璃光佛，遂獲痊損。其大父軾，特為造畫尊像，敬拜稽首，為之贊曰：

我佛出現時，眾生無病惱。
世界悉琉璃，大地皆藥草。
我今眾稚孺，仰佛如翁媼。
面頤既圓平，風末亦除掃。
弟子龠與德，前世衲衣老。
敬造世尊像，壽命仗佛保。

Translation:

The Buddhist disciple, Su Yue, and his sister, Su De, had been suffering from a prolonged illness without recovery. Their father, Guo, and mother, Fan, offered prayers and offerings to Yaoshi Buddha of Lapis Lazuli Light, following which they were cured. Their grandfather, Shi, specially commissioned a painting of the Buddha's image, and, respectfully bowed in reverence, composed the following eulogy:

When my Buddha appears, sentient beings bear no illnesses or suffering.
Lapis lazuli filling the world, medicinal herbs covering the great earth.
Now our young children revere the Buddhas like they do their elders.
Their cheeks and chin have become smooth and even, and all evil winds have been swept away.
Your disciples Yue and De, were old kasaya-wearing monks in their previous life.
We respectfully create images of the World Honoured One, and rely on the Buddha to protect our lifespans.

Another prominent example is the famous Qing dynasty artist Ding Guanpeng (丁觀鵬,1708–1771), who painted "The Assembly of Yaoshi Buddha of Lapis Lazuli Light" (藥師琉璃光佛會) for the Qing Qianlong Emperor, which depicted Yaoshi together with his retinue: Sūryaprabha, Candraprabha, the Eight Great Bodhisattvas, the Twelve Heavenly Generals, Mahākāśyapa, Ānanda and over forty other deities.

Another major component of the worship of Yaoshi is the ceremonial lighting of lamps. This practice derives from the Yaoshi jing itself, and typically involves the temple setting up an altar consisting of forty-nine lamps, which are supposed to remain continuously lit for the entirety of the ritual period. Traditionally, oil lamps were used, but some temples may also use electrical lighting in contemporary times. Due to Yaoshi's rites being frequently performed to pray for longevity, these lamps have become commonly known in Chinese as changming deng (長命燈, lit: "Long life lamps"). Five-coloured life-extending banners known as fan (幡) are also typically set up together with the lamps. After the lamps are lit and banners are set up, the Yaoshi jing is typically recited for the entirety of the ritual period. Historical records show that this ritual was already in practice during the early Tang dynasty. For instance, a document that was unearthed from a tomb in Turpan titled Tang xianheng san nian xinfu wei agong lu zai sheng gongde shu (唐咸亨三年新婦為阿公錄在生功德疏, lit: "Memorial by a newlywed bride regarding her father-in-law's merits during his lifetime, recorded during the Xianheng era of the Tang dynasty"), dating to 672, described the eponymous bride's father-in-law being commemorated by a ritual at a temple where forty–nine lamps were lit at dusk, a yellow banner was hung and monks were invited to perform repentance rites according to the prescriptions of a sūtra related to Yaoshi. In contemporary times, this ritual is still practiced widely by Chinese Buddhist temples, especially during the eighth lunar month, which is traditionally devoted to the rites of Yaoshi according to the Chinese Buddhist liturgical calendar.

Another common practice of Yaoshi devotion is the chanting or recitation of his mantras. One popular mantra associated with him in the Chinese Buddhist tradition is the Yaoshi Guanding Zhenyan (藥師灌頂真言, lit: "Yaoshi Abhiṣeka Dhāraṇī"), also known as the Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūrya Prabhasa Tathāgatā Abhisecani Dhāraṇī in Sanskrit. This mantra is recorded in the Yaoshi Liuli Guang Qifo benyuan gongde jing that was translated by Yijing and is considered one of the Ten Small Mantras, which is a grouping of mantras that are typically recited during the morning liturgical service in most Chinese Buddhist temples.

Composition and practice of the Yaoshi Bao Chan

By the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the influential monk and monastic reformer, Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏, 1535–1615), who was the Eighth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition, extensively practiced repentance rituals, which greatly influenced the composition of many other new repentance rituals, some of which were devoted to Yaoshi. The authorship of the Yaoshi Bao Chan is traditionally attributed to the eminent early Qing dynasty (1644–1912) monk Jianyue Duti (見月讀體), who was a Vinaya specialist from Yunnan. In his youth, he was inspired to join the Buddhist monkhood after reading the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and eventually received ordination under the Vinaya master Sanmei Jiguang (三昧寂光), an eminent monk who was recognized as a national preceptor by both the Ming and Qing imperial courts and who served as the abbot of Longchang Temple on Mount Baohua, a prestigious monastic center that was famed for their Vinaya studies during the Qing dynasty. During the late Ming to early Qing dynasty period, monastic discipline was seen as being on a decline. In response, Duti promoted Vinaya studies, rectified many monastery malpractices, and, due to his strict self-discipline, was a respected Vinaya master who was seen as a reformer and revitalizer of monastic ethics and precepts. Duti would eventually succeed Jiguang as the abbot of Longchang Temple. Aside from his abbotship and promotion of the Vinaya, he was also notable for his works on repentance rituals, with a prominent example being his re-edited version of Siming Zhili's liturgical manual for the Dabei Chan. While some Chinese Buddhist traditions hold Duti as the original composer of the Yaoshi Bao Chan's ritual manual, there is no extant copy of his version of the manual.

After the ritual's composition, it was practiced by the Chan Buddhist master Ren'an Yi (仁庵義禪師), who later introduced it to the Tiantai monk Shou Deng (受登, 1607–1675). At this time, the ritual's liturgy was titled the Yaoshi sanmei xingfa (藥師三昧行法, lit: "The Method of Practicing Yaoshi Samādhi"). Shou Deng revised and edited the ritual's liturgy in 1664, defining it in terms of four aspects: the name (explaining the origin of Yaoshi Samādhi), encouragement of practice (admonishing the practice of Yaoshi Samādhi), method (revealing the method of offering to Yaoshi), and clarification (affirming the liturgical manual as an essential method for achieving blessings and eliminating calamities). Shou Deng's version of the ritual manual was widely printed and disseminated under the commission of a layman named Mao Shengye (懋聖葉), becoming popular in the Jiangnan region. Shou Deng's liturgy would receive several more edits in later periods, eventually becoming standardized as a three-volume ritual manual titled the Cibei Yaoshi bao chan (慈悲藥師寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of the Compassionate Yaoshi"). This finalized version is still widely used in most modern contemporary performances of the ritual throughout China, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and other overseas Chinese communities.

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