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Ancient literature

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Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive well, but some texts and fragments have persisted.

An unknown number of written works have not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost.

Incomplete list of ancient texts

Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

3rd millennium BC (approximate dates shown). The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC (classical Sumerian). Certain literary texts are difficult to date, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which was recorded in the Papyrus of Ani around 1240 BC, but other versions of the book probably date from about the 18th century BC.

Middle Bronze Age

2000 BC to 1601 BC (approximate dates shown)

  • 2000 BC: Egyptian Coffin Texts and Teaching for King Merykara
  • 2000 BC: Sumerian Lament for Ur, Lament for Sumer and Ur, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, and Debate between Winter and Summer
  • 2000 BC – 1900 BC: Egyptian Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Prophecy of Neferti, and the first of the Harper's Songs
  • 1950 BC: Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna and Hymn to Ištar
  • 1950 BC: Egyptian Instructions of Amenemhat, the Akhmim wooden tablets, and the Heqanakht papyri
  • 1940 BC: Sumerian Correspondence of the Kings of Ur
  • 1900 BC: Akkadian Legend of Etana, Summa izbu, Šumma ālu, Namburbi, and Iškar Zaqīqu
  • 1900 BC: Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar and The Legend of Adapa
  • 1900 BC: Egyptian Instructions of Kagemni
  • 1859 BC – 1840 BC: Egyptian Dispute between a man and his Ba
  • 1859 BC – 1813 BC: Egyptian Loyalist Teaching
  • 1850 BC: Egyptian The Eloquent Peasant
  • 1850 BC: Akkadian Kultepe texts, Bārûtu, the Counsels of Wisdom, the Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin, and the Labbu Myth
  • 1800 BC: Akkadian earliest complete version of the Epic of Gilgamesh
  • 1800 BC: Egyptian Berlin Papyrus 6619, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, and Story of Sinuhe (in Hieratic)
  • 1780 BC: Akkadian Mari letters, including the Epic of Zimri-Lim
  • 1754 BC: Akkadian Code of Hammurabi stele
  • 1750 BC: Akkadian Agushaya Hymn
  • Late 18th century BC: Hittite Anitta text
  • 1700 BC: Akkadian Atra-Hasis
  • 1700 BC: Egyptian Westcar Papyrus
  • 1650 BC: Egyptian Ipuwer Papyrus
  • 1650 BC: Sumerian Dialogue between a Man and His God

Late Bronze Age

1600 BC to 1201 BC (approximate dates shown)

  • 1600 BC: Hittite Code of the Nesilim
  • 1600 BC: Akkadian Ḫulbazizi, Eridu Genesis and Enuma Anu Enlil
  • 1600 BC: Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus
  • 1550 BC: Egyptian Book of the Dead, Instruction of Any, King Neferkare and General Sasenet, the Tale of the Doomed Prince, the Litany of Re, Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, and the Ebers Papyrus
  • 1550 BC: Akkadian Bullussa-rabi's Hymn to Gula
  • 1550 BC: Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
  • 1500 BC: Akkadian Poor Man of Nippur
  • 1500 BC: Hittite military oath
  • 1500 BC – 1300 BC: Ugaritic Baal Cycle
  • 1500 BC – 1200 BC: Ugaritic Legend of Keret
  • 1500 BC – 1000 BC: Sanskrit Rig Veda
  • 1500 BC: Akkadian Dynasty of Dunnum and Chronicle of Early Kings
  • 1450 BC: Egyptian The Taking of Joppa
  • 1450 BC: Akkadian Assyrian law
  • 1425 BC: Egyptian Amduat
  • 1400 BC: Akkadian Marriage of Nergal and Ereshkigal, Autobiography of Kurigalzu, and Amarna letters
  • Mid 14th century BC: Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten
  • 1350 BC: Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat
  • 1350 BC: Akkadian Šurpu
  • 1300 BC: Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, Papyrus Anastasi I
  • 1300 BC: Akkadian Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, the Dream of Kurigalzu, The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš, Iqqur Ipuš, and Summa izbu
  • 1274 BC: Akkadian Adad-nārāri Epic
  • 1240 BC: Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, Book of the Dead
  • 1200 BC – 900 BC: Akkadian version and younger stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh
  • 1200 BC: Akkadian Tukulti-Ninurta Epic
  • 1200 BC: Egyptian Tale of Two Brothers

Iron Age

Iron Age texts predating Classical Antiquity: 12th to 8th centuries BC

  • 1200 BC: The Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda
  • 1100 BC: Akkadian Šumma sinništu qaqqada rabāt
  • 1050 BC: Egyptian Story of Wenamun
  • 1050 BC: Akkadian Sakikkū (SA.GIG) "Diagnostic Omens" by Esagil-kin-apli.
  • 1050 BC: Akkadian Alamdimmû
  • 1050 BC: The Babylonian Theodicy of Šaggil-kīnam-ubbib.
  • 1010 BC: Akkadian Royal Inscription of Simbar-Šipak
  • 1000 BC: Chinese Classic of Poetry (Shījīng)
  • 1000 BC: Akkadian Dialogue of Pessimism, Chronicle P, Maglû, Bīt rimki, Zu-buru-dabbeda, Advice to a Prince, Asakkū marsūtu, the Great Prayer to Šamaš, the MUL.APIN, the Sag-gig-ga-meš, and Šēp lemutti
  • 900 BC: Akkadian Epic of Erra
  • 900 BC: Vedic Sanskrit Aranyaka

Classical antiquity

9th century BC

8th century BC

7th century BC

6th century BC

5th century BC

4th century BC

3rd century BC

2nd century BC

  • Sanskrit:
    • Patanjali (founder of yoga school of philosophy): Mahābhāṣya (treatise on grammar and linguistics), Patanjalatantra (medical text), Yoga Sūtras
    • Badrayana (founder of Vedanta school of philosophy): Brahma Sutras
    • Manu: Manusmriti (Laws of Manu)
  • Avestan: Vendidad
  • Chinese:
    • Sima Qian: Records of the Grand Historian (Shǐ Jì)
    • Huainanzi: Book of the Huai'nan Masters
    • Sima Xiangru
    • Six Secret Teachings (Liù Tāo)
    • Book of Gods and Strange Things (Shényì Jīng)
    • Seven Remonstrances (Qī Jiàn)
    • Summons for a Recluse (Zhāo Yǐnshì)
    • Alas That My Lot Was Not Cast (Āi Shí Mìng)
    • Jia Yi: The Faults of Qin (Guò Qín Lùn)
  • Aramaic: Book of Daniel
  • Hebrew: Sirach
  • Greek:
  • Latin:
    • Terence (195/185 BC — 159 BC), comic dramatist: The Brothers, The Girl from Andros, Eunuchus, The Self-Tormentor
    • Quintus Ennius (239 BC — c. 169 BC), poet
    • Marcus Pacuvius (c. 220 BC — 130 BC), tragic dramatist, poet
    • Statius Caecilius (220 BC — 168/166 BC), comic dramatist
    • Marcius Porcius Cato (234 BC — 149 BC), generalist, topical writer
    • Gaius Acilius (2nd century BC), historian
    • Lucius Accius (170 BC — c. 86 BC), tragic dramatist, philologist
    • Gaius Lucilius (c. 160s BC — 103/2 BC), satirist
    • Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd century BC), public officer, epigrammatist
    • Aulus Furius Antias (2nd century BC), poet
    • Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus (130 BC — 87 BC), public officer, tragic dramatist
    • Lucius Pomponius Bononiensis (2nd century BC), comic dramatist, satirist
    • Lucius Cassius Hemina (2nd century BC), historian
    • Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (2nd century BC), historian
    • Manius Manilius (2nd century BC), public officer, jurist
    • Lucius Coelius Antipater (2nd century BC), jurist, historian
    • Publius Sempronius Asellio (158 BC — after 91 BC), military officer, historian
    • Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (2nd century BC), jurist
    • Lucius Afranius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), comic dramatist
    • Titus Albucius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), orator
    • Publius Rutilius Rufus (158 BC — after 78 BC), jurist
    • Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd & 1st centuries BC), public officer, poet
    • Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus (154 BC — 74 BC), philologist
    • Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian
    • Valerius Antias (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian
    • Lucius Cornelius Sisenna (121 BC — 67 BC), soldier, historian
    • Quintus Cornificius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), rhetorician
  • Pali: Tipitaka

1st century BC

1st century AD

2nd century

3rd century

  • Avestan: Khordeh Avesta (Zoroastrian prayer book)
  • Pahlavi: Mani: Shabuhragan (Manichaean holy book)
  • Chinese:
    • Chen Shou: Records of Three Kingdoms (三國志, Sānguó Zhì)
    • Zhang Hua: 博物志, Bowuzhi
    • Xiang'er: 老子想爾注, Lǎozi Xiǎng'ěr Zhù
    • Lieyi Zhuan: 列異傳, Arrayed Marvels
    • Lu Ji: 文賦, Wen fu (Essay on Literature)
    • Xijing Zaji: 西京雜記, Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital
    • Jian'an poetry (建安風骨, Jiàn'ān Fēnggǔ)
    • The Peacock Flies Southeast (孔雀東南飛, Kǒngquè Dōngnán Fēi)
    • Cao Zhi
    • Ji Kang
    • Ruan Ji
    • Zuo Si
    • Pan Yue
  • Greek: Plotinus: Enneads
  • Latin: see Late Latin
    • Distichs of Cato
  • Hebrew: Mishnah
  • Pali (Sri Lanka): Dīpavaṃsa

Late Antiquity

4th century

5th century

6th century

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